Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

Table 2. Ordering relations among grammatical morphemes
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1. Clear cases (true at least 90 per cent of the time. Data from
studies where each morpheme occurs in at least ten obligatory
occasions. Counterexamples discussed in Table 3.)
1. ING precedes Irr. PAST
2. ING precedes Reg. PAST
3. ING precedes III singular
4. ING precedes POSS
5. ING precedes AUX
6. PLURAL precedes Ir. PAST
7. PLURAL precedes Reg. PAST
8. PLURAL precedes III singular
9. PLURAL precedes POSS
10. COP precedes Irr. PAST
11. COP precedes Reg. PAST
12. COP precedes III singular
13. COP precedes POSS
14. ART precedes POSS
15. ART precedes III singular
16. ART precedes Reg. PAST
17. AUX precedes POSS
18. AUX precedes III singular
(1 through 9 hold for all studies; 10 through 18 do not necessarily
hold for child L1 acquisition)
II. Less clear cases (true of most studies where each morpheme occurs
in at least ten obligatory occasions. Except where indicated,
probability of relation holding significant by sign test.)
1. ING precedes ART
2. ING precedes PLURAL
3. PLURAL precedes AUX
4. PLURAL precedes ART (p < 15)
5. COP precedes AUX
6. COP precedes ART
7. ART precedes Irr. PAST
8. AUX precedes Irr. PAST
9. AUX precedes Reg. PAST
10. Irr. PAST precedes III singular
11. Irr. PAST precedes Reg. PAST (p < 0.21)
12. Irr. PAST precedes POSS (p < 0.11)
(Numbers 1, 3, and 7 hold for child L1 acquisition; the others do not
necessarily hold for child L1 acquisition.)
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are not given, or come from Uguisu, Hakuta's subject. (Detailed discussion of
Uguisu will wait for another study.)
Many of the generalizations hold for L1 as well as L2. In general, this is true of
bound morphemes, and this agreement underlies the
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