Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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instrumental reasons as primary for studying English, Oller et al. found that those subjects who rated Americans as "helpful, sincere, kind reasonable, and friendly" did better on a Cloze test of English as a second language. The effect of integrative motivation appears to be weaker in other situations. These situations include those where opportunities to get intake outside the classroom are rare, such as foreign-language learning in the United States. Gardner and Lambert (1972) investigated high-school learning of French in three American communities in Maine, Connecticut, and Louisiana, and only a weak relationship was found in Connecticut. Also, Oller and colleagues (reported in Oller, 1977) studied the acquisition of English in Japan (English as a foreign language, or EFL), and found little relationship between attitude and proficiency (see also the more recent Chihara and Oller, 1978). Instrumental motivation may take precedence as a predictor of achievement where there is a special urgency about second language acquisition and where there appears to be little desire to "integrate". As mentioned earlier, instrumental motivation could mean a great deal of interaction in such situations, entailing more intake. The presence of a higher affective filter, however, would predict less success in the long run, however. Two important studies show instrumental motivation to be superior in such situations: Lukmani (1972) found that for female Marathi speakers in Bombay "who belonged to the comparatively non-Westernized section of Bombay society" proficiency in English, as measured by a Cloze test, was more related to instrumental motivation than to integrative. Lukmani concluded that her subjects saw themselves "based in their own country but reaching out to modern ideas and life styles" (p. 272). Gardner and Lambert (1972) reached similar conclusions for English as a second language in the Philippines. In the Philippines English is the language of education and business, but is rarely spoken in the home. Gardner and Lambert found that instrumental motivation was a better predictor of overall English proficiency, but also found a clear relationship between the presence of integrative motivation and "aural-oral" skills, supporting part (b) of this prediction. Oller, Baca, and Vigil (1977) report on a case where integrative 28
motivation played no role because of political ill-feelings. Sixty Mexican-American females were surveyed in New Mexico, all from low-income families. The subjects who were more proficient in English (a Cloze test was used) tended to rate Americans lower on certain personality traits that are valued by the subjects (religious, sensitive, shy, considerate). Oller et al. suggest that these people "fell the oppressive weight of having been absorbed into a powerful political system in which they have traditionally had little power of choice" (p. 182) Below we review personality factors in relation to prediction no. 3, beginning with those factors relating to self-confidence. Recall that these factors are predicted to be strongest in intake-rich situations, and will emerge most clearly in Monitor-free tests, but will be present to at least some extent when subconscious acquisition is involved. Anxiety. There appears to be a consistent relationship between various forms of anxiety and language proficiency in all situations, formal and informal. Anxiety level may thus be a very potent influence on the affective filter. These studies have shown a relationship between low anxiety and language acquisition: Carroll (1963) noted a small negative correlation (r = -0.20, n = 68) between test anxiety and accomplishment in intensive foreign language courses. Gardner, Smythe, Clement, and Gliksman (1976) reported that classroom anxiety correlated with speech skills as well as grades in French as a foreign language in grades 7 to 11 in Canada. There was a trend for low anxiety to be more closely related to speech (Monitor-free) test than to grades. Naimon, Fröhlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978) found that for their subjects (French students in grades 8 to 12 in Toronto) classroom anxiety, a high fear of rejection and similar feelings may be related to failure. Also, a composite variable consisting of certainty in hand-raising, reaction to being called on without hand-raising, and embarrassment in speaking French, called "overall classroom personality" related to achievement on an imitation test ( r = 0.361, p < 0.01) as well as listening comprehension (r = 0.380, p < 0.01). Wittenborn, Larsen, and Vigil (1945; reported in Pimsleur, Mosberg, and Morrison, 1962) studied college French and Spanish students, and found that low and high achievers may be distinguished by level of anxiety as well as a degree of self-confidence. Dunkel (1947; also cited 29
Page 1 and 2: Second Language Acquisition and Sec
Page 3 and 4: Acknowledgments I would like to tha
Page 5 and 6: Introduction This book is concerned
Page 7 and 8: performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
Page 9 and 10: when it does not get in the way of
Page 11 and 12: language (some similarities to firs
Page 13 and 14: In the second part of this chapter,
Page 15 and 16: far more valuable then the exercise
Page 17 and 18: Monitoring generally improves accur
Page 19 and 20: overconcern with correctness, howev
Page 21 and 22: language is spoken or may be expose
Page 23 and 24: 2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
Page 25 and 26: 1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
Page 27 and 28: outines and patterns, and at a more
Page 29 and 30: Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
Page 31: stay-ins appeared to be integrative
Page 35 and 36: (1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60: significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62: Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
Page 63 and 64: Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
Page 65 and 66: Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
Page 67 and 68: ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
Page 69 and 70: Research Findings 1. First language
Page 71 and 72: First-language-influenced errors he
Page 73 and 74: and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
Page 75 and 76: ain", the right hemisphere, appears
Page 77 and 78: second language acquisition in adul
Page 79 and 80: hemisphere is removed, and the pati
Page 81 and 82: Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
Page 83 and 84:
advantage in the first language. En
Page 85 and 86:
while English "orients its users to
Page 87 and 88:
7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
Page 89 and 90:
adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
Page 91 and 92:
"That's a _______") which were char
Page 93 and 94:
variation. Nelson, for example, dis
Page 95 and 96:
which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98:
and often incorporated them into hi
Page 99 and 100:
what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102:
Furthermore, she associated strings
Page 103 and 104:
and patterns other than as discours
Page 105 and 106:
similar difficulty orders for gramm
Page 107 and 108:
understanding language that is "a l
Page 109 and 110:
up to the intermediate level. As Wa
Page 111 and 112:
practical only in a foreign languag
Page 113 and 114:
is making some effort at making him
Page 115 and 116:
It may be useful to distinguish thr
Page 117 and 118:
the luxury of building up acquired
Page 119 and 120:
marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
Page 121 and 122:
to speak the language they were lea
Page 123 and 124:
9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
Page 125 and 126:
contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
Page 127 and 128:
language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
Page 129 and 130:
Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
Page 131 and 132:
speech is so well rooted in the "he
Page 133 and 134:
speech is: they are simpler than na
Page 135 and 136:
Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
Page 137 and 138:
e boredom. When they overshoot, the
Page 139 and 140:
class was conducted entirely in Fre
Page 141 and 142:
more expansions as well as repetiti
Page 143 and 144:
Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
Page 145 and 146:
Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
Page 147 and 148:
Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
Page 149 and 150:
Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
Page 151 and 152:
Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
Page 153 and 154:
Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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