Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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Note that the model presented here allows us to self-correct using acquired knowledge of language, or our "feel" for grammaticality. That is what native speakers generally do in the case of speech errors. The point is not that we can only monitor using conscious rules. This is not the case. The point is that conscious learning is only available as a Monitor. In the last few years, the acquisition-learning distinction has been shown to be useful in explaining a variety of phenomena in the field of second language acquisition. While many of these phenomena may have alternative explanations, the claim is that the Monitor Theory provides for all of them in a general, non ad hoc way that satisfies the intuitions as well as the data. The papers in this volume review this research, and include discussion of how the second language classroom may be utilized for both acquisition and learning. Individual Variation Chapter 1, based on a paper written in 1976 and published in Ritchie (1978), describes how the learning-acquisition distinction captures one sort of individual variation in second language performance. Based on case histories, this section proposes that there are basically three types of performer: Monitor "overusers" are performers who feel they must "know the rule" for everything and do not entirely trust their feel for grammaticality in the second language. One case, "S", described by Stafford and Covitt (1978), remarked: "I feel bad... when I put words together and I don't know nothing about the grammar." In Stevicks terms (Stevick, 1976, p. 78), overusers may suffer from "lathophobic aphasia", an "unwillingness to speak for fear of making a mistake". At the other extreme is the underuser, who appears to be entirely dependent on what he can "pick up" of the second language. Underusers seem to be immune to error correction, and do not perform well on "grammar" test. They may acquire a great deal of the target language, however, and often use quite complex constructions. The optimal user is the performer who uses learning as a real supplement to acquisition, monitoring when it is appropriate and 4
when it does not get in the way of communication (e.g. prepared speech and writing). Very good optimal users may, in fact, achieve the illusion of native speaker competence in written performance. They "keep grammar in its place", using it to fill gaps in acquired competence when such monitoring does not get in the way of communication. Attitude and Aptitude Chapter 2 illustrates how the acquisition-learning hypothesis provides a parsimonious explanation for what had appeared (to me) to be a mysterious finding: both language aptitude, as measured by standard language aptitude tests, and language attitude (affective variable) are related to adult second language achievement, but are not related to each other. This section explores two hypotheses that attempt to account for this problem. The first is that aptitude may be directly related to conscious learning (especially certain components as detailed in Chapter 2). As we shall see in Chapter 2, scores on aptitude tests show a clear relationship to performance on "monitored" test situation and when conscious learning has been stressed in the classroom. Second language attitude refers to acquirers' orientations toward speakers of the target language, as well as personality factors. The second hypothesis is that such factors relate directly to acquisition and only indirectly to conscious learning. Briefly, the "right" attitudinal factors produce two effects: they encourage useful input for language acquisition and they allow the acquirer to be "open" to this input so it can be utilized for acquisition. The pedagogical implications of these hypotheses will not surprise many experienced teachers: if the direct relationship between acquisition and attitudinal factors does exist, and if our major goal in language teaching is the development of communicative abilities, we must conclude that attitudinal factors and motivational factors are more important the aptitude. This is because conscious learning makes only a small contribution to communicative ability. Chapter 2 also contains a discussion of the nature of child-adult differences, claiming that the Monitor, the conscious grammar, may 5
Page 1 and 2: Second Language Acquisition and Sec
Page 3 and 4: Acknowledgments I would like to tha
Page 5 and 6: Introduction This book is concerned
Page 7: performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
Page 11 and 12: language (some similarities to firs
Page 13 and 14: In the second part of this chapter,
Page 15 and 16: far more valuable then the exercise
Page 17 and 18: Monitoring generally improves accur
Page 19 and 20: overconcern with correctness, howev
Page 21 and 22: language is spoken or may be expose
Page 23 and 24: 2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
Page 25 and 26: 1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
Page 27 and 28: outines and patterns, and at a more
Page 29 and 30: Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
Page 31 and 32: stay-ins appeared to be integrative
Page 33 and 34: motivation played no role because o
Page 35 and 36: (1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60:
significant differences for any of
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Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
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Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
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Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
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ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
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Research Findings 1. First language
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First-language-influenced errors he
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and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
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ain", the right hemisphere, appears
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second language acquisition in adul
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hemisphere is removed, and the pati
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Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
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advantage in the first language. En
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while English "orients its users to
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7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
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adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
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"That's a _______") which were char
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variation. Nelson, for example, dis
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which he had learned by imitation.
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and often incorporated them into hi
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what utterances mean by observing h
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Furthermore, she associated strings
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and patterns other than as discours
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similar difficulty orders for gramm
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understanding language that is "a l
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up to the intermediate level. As Wa
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practical only in a foreign languag
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is making some effort at making him
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It may be useful to distinguish thr
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the luxury of building up acquired
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marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
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to speak the language they were lea
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9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
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contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
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language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
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Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
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speech is so well rooted in the "he
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speech is: they are simpler than na
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Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
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e boredom. When they overshoot, the
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class was conducted entirely in Fre
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more expansions as well as repetiti
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Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
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Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
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Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
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Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
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Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
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Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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