Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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in a second language, or a first language, without ever producing it. There are several supporting arguments for this intake hypothesis. First, as mentioned earlier, there are several studies showing that delaying speech in second language instruction, when active listening is provided, causes no delay in attaining proficiency in second language acquisition, and may even be beneficial (for child second language acquisition see Gary, 1975; for adult studies see Asher, 1965, 1966, 1969; Postovsky, 1977). Also, there are suggestive informal accounts of language acquisition in other cultures, where active listening is stressed. Here is Sorenson's (1967) report on the American Indians in the Vaupes River area: The Indians do not practice speaking a language they do not know well yet. Instead, they passively learn lists of words, forms, phrases in it and familiarize themselves with the sound of its pronunciation... They may make an occasional attempt to speak a new language in an appropriate situation, but if it does not come easily, they will not force it. Finally, there is the well-established fact from child language acquisition studies that comprehension normally precedes production. Production, in fact, need never occur. Lenneberg (1962) describes a case of congenital dysarthria in an 8-year-old boy who never spoke, but who could understand spoken English perfectly well. Lenneberg noted that: (A) similar phenomenon in more attenuated form is extremely common. Understanding normally precedes speaking by several weeks or months. This discrepancy is regularly increased in literally all types of developmental speech disorders and is best illustrated in children who have structural deformities in the oral cavity or pharynx and who produce unintelligible speech for years--sometimes throughout life--without the slightest impairment of understanding. Congenitally deaf children also learn to comprehend language in the absence of vocal skills.... However, there is no clear evidence that speaking is ever present in the absence of understanding. This does not mean that speaking is not of practical importance, and it may be the case that speaking may indirectly promote language acquisition. What may be the case is that speaking, engaging in conversation, encourages intake. "Eavesdropping" (Schumann and Schumann, 1977) may provide the acquirer with a certain amount of intake, but actual conversation, in which the acquirer has at least some control of the topic and in which the acquirer's conversational partner 108
is making some effort at making himself understood, may provide more intake. We return to the role of output below. Another point I need to mention before moving on to other parts of the program is the most important. I place it last and give it less salience in this chapter only because it has been discussed elsewhere in detail (Chapter 2, this volume) and very eloquently and clearly in Stevick's Memory, Meaning, and Method: this is the issue of motivation and attitude. In Chapter 2 it was noted that aspects of motivation and attitude that appear to relate to second language proficiency appear to relate more directly to acquisition than to learning. Again, the detailed argumentation appears elsewhere, and need not be repeated here. What is worth repeating, however, is how this finding relates to practice. Dulay and Burt (1977) have suggested that an 109
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Second Language Acquisition and Sec
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Acknowledgments I would like to tha
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Introduction This book is concerned
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performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
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when it does not get in the way of
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language (some similarities to firs
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In the second part of this chapter,
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far more valuable then the exercise
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Monitoring generally improves accur
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overconcern with correctness, howev
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language is spoken or may be expose
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2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
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1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
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outines and patterns, and at a more
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Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
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stay-ins appeared to be integrative
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motivation played no role because o
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(1977), after interviewing teachers
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did not produce the same results. T
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a stage many people, but not all, r
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The Good Language Learner Revisited
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predict differences in student achi
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settle the issue of whether adults
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language had higher scores than stu
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Table 1. English proficiency and ye
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The "self-study" reinterpretation o
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series the evidence for learning is
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4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
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Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
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significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62: Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
Page 63 and 64: Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
Page 65 and 66: Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
Page 67 and 68: ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
Page 69 and 70: Research Findings 1. First language
Page 71 and 72: First-language-influenced errors he
Page 73 and 74: and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
Page 75 and 76: ain", the right hemisphere, appears
Page 77 and 78: second language acquisition in adul
Page 79 and 80: hemisphere is removed, and the pati
Page 81 and 82: Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
Page 83 and 84: advantage in the first language. En
Page 85 and 86: while English "orients its users to
Page 87 and 88: 7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
Page 89 and 90: adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
Page 91 and 92: "That's a _______") which were char
Page 93 and 94: variation. Nelson, for example, dis
Page 95 and 96: which he had learned by imitation.
Page 97 and 98: and often incorporated them into hi
Page 99 and 100: what utterances mean by observing h
Page 101 and 102: Furthermore, she associated strings
Page 103 and 104: and patterns other than as discours
Page 105 and 106: similar difficulty orders for gramm
Page 107 and 108: understanding language that is "a l
Page 109 and 110: up to the intermediate level. As Wa
Page 111: practical only in a foreign languag
Page 115 and 116: It may be useful to distinguish thr
Page 117 and 118: the luxury of building up acquired
Page 119 and 120: marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
Page 121 and 122: to speak the language they were lea
Page 123 and 124: 9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
Page 125 and 126: contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
Page 127 and 128: language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
Page 129 and 130: Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
Page 131 and 132: speech is so well rooted in the "he
Page 133 and 134: speech is: they are simpler than na
Page 135 and 136: Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
Page 137 and 138: e boredom. When they overshoot, the
Page 139 and 140: class was conducted entirely in Fre
Page 141 and 142: more expansions as well as repetiti
Page 143 and 144: Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
Page 145 and 146: Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
Page 147 and 148: Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
Page 149 and 150: Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
Page 151 and 152: Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
Page 153 and 154: Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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