Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

outines and patterns, and at a more advanced level this predicts the non-acquisition of
elements that are communicatively less important but that are socially important, such as
aspects of morphology and accent. 2
When the practical value of second language proficiency is high, and frequent use
necessary, instrumental motivation may be a powerful predictor of second language
acquisition.
Personality factors are interrelated with motivational factors. Briefly, it is hypothesized
that the self-confident or secure person will be more able to encourage intake and will
also have a lower filter. Traits relating to self-confidence (lack of anxiety, outgoing
personality, self-esteem) 3 are thus predicted to relate to second language acquisition. H.
D. Brown (1977) states a similar view: "Presumably, the person with high self-esteem is
able to reach out beyond himself more freely, to be less inhibited, and because of his ego
strength, to make the necessary mistakes involved in language learning with less threat
to his ego" (p. 352). The less self-confident person may understand the input but not
acquire, just as the self-conscious person may filter (or avoid) in other domains.
Empathy, the ability to put oneself in another's shoes, is also predicted to be relevant to
acquisition in that the empathic person may be the one who is able to identify more
easily with speakers of a target language and thus accept their input as intake for
language acquisition (lowered affective filter). Empathy appears to interact with other
attitudinal factors. Schumann (1975) suggests that "... the natural factors that induce ego
flexibility and lower inhibitions (assumed to relate to increased empathy) are those
conditions which make the learner less anxious, make him feel accepted and make him
form positive identifications with speakers of the target language" (p. 227).
Two other personality factors, not related to self-confidence, are also predicted to relate
to success in second language. Attitude toward the classroom and teacher may relate to
both acquisition and learning. The student who feels at ease in the classroom and likes
the teacher may seek out intake by volunteering (he may be a "high input generator";
Seliger, 1977), and may be more accepting of the teacher as a source of intake (for
exceptionally clear discussion of this point, see Stevick, 1976, chapters 6-8). Positive
attitudes toward the classroom
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