Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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First language influence may thus be an indicator of low acquisition, or the result of the performer attempting to produce before having acquired enough of the target language. It is, not surprisingly, found most often in foreign language, as opposed to second language situations, where opportunities for real communication are fewer, and is only rarely seen in "natural" child second language acquisition. Children are usually allowed to go through a "silent period", during which they build up acquired competence through active listening. Several scholars have suggested that providing such a silent period for all performers in second language acquisition would be beneficial (see for example, Postovsky, 1977) Note that it is possible for performers to use the first language and the Monitor to perform without any acquired competence in the second language. This bizarre mode is severely limited, yet its use may give the adult a temporary head-start over children, who presumably rely on acquisition alone for the most part. This chapter is a slightly expanded version of a paper that originally appeared in On TESOL '77 (Krashen, 1977a). Neurological Correlates Chapter 6 was originally published in the SPEAQ Journal, coauthored with Linda Galloway (Krashen and Galloway, 1978). It discusses current research in two areas of neurolinguistics and the relationship of this research to the acquisition-learning hypothesis. The first part of this chapter deals with the development of cerebral dominance, and explores research bearing on Lenneberg's hypothesis that childadult differences in second language acquisition are due to the completion of the development of cerebral dominance, hypothesized by Lenneberg to occur at around puberty. More recent reports place the completion of the development of cerebral dominance much earlier (some claiming age 5, others claiming that laterality is present at birth). The implications of this research are that the "critical period" and cerebral dominance may not be related at all. Other explanations of child-adult differences are discussed, namely the hypothesis presented in Chapter 2, that Formal Operations causes an increase in our ability to learn but damages our ability to acquire. 8
In the second part of this chapter, the role of the right hemisphere in language acquisition is discussed. Psychological and neurological evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that there is an early stage in second language acquisition (not learning) that involves the right side of the brain. Since it may be the case that early first language acquisition also involves some right hemisphere participation, confirmation of such a hypothesis would strengthen the parallel between first and second language acquisition. Routines and Patterns Chapter 7 originally appeared in Language Learning and was coauthored with Robin Scarcella. Routines and patterns are "memorized language". Routines are whole sentences or phrases, such as How are you?, and patterns are sentence frames with open slots, such as That's a ------. A performer can use routines and patterns without learned or acquired knowledge of its internal parts. This chapter presents evidence to support the hypothesis that routines and patterns are fundamentally different from both acquired and learned language, and they do not "turn into" acquired or learned language directly. This evidence is drawn from neurolinguistic research, and studies in child first, child second, and adult language acquisition. Routines and patterns may be quite helpful, however, in establishing and maintaining social relations, and managing conversations, as Fillmore's work points out. Theory to Practice Chapter 8 deals directly with application to the second language classroom. It focuses, first of all, on the important question of how we acquire, concluding that comprehensible input is the crucial and necessary ingredient. This hypothesis, the "Input Hypothesis", is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. I then discuss what sorts of activities provide comprehensible input, input language in which the focus is on the message and not the form. This chapter is optimistic with respect to the role and value of the classroom in encouraging second language acquisition, suggesting that 9
Page 1 and 2: Second Language Acquisition and Sec
Page 3 and 4: Acknowledgments I would like to tha
Page 5 and 6: Introduction This book is concerned
Page 7 and 8: performance..." (p.35). Corder (196
Page 9 and 10: when it does not get in the way of
Page 11: language (some similarities to firs
Page 15 and 16: far more valuable then the exercise
Page 17 and 18: Monitoring generally improves accur
Page 19 and 20: overconcern with correctness, howev
Page 21 and 22: language is spoken or may be expose
Page 23 and 24: 2. Attitude and Aptitude in Second
Page 25 and 26: 1973, p. 8). Carroll also suggests
Page 27 and 28: outines and patterns, and at a more
Page 29 and 30: Sentences, Paired Associates, and S
Page 31 and 32: stay-ins appeared to be integrative
Page 33 and 34: motivation played no role because o
Page 35 and 36: (1977), after interviewing teachers
Page 37 and 38: did not produce the same results. T
Page 39 and 40: a stage many people, but not all, r
Page 41 and 42: The Good Language Learner Revisited
Page 43 and 44: predict differences in student achi
Page 45 and 46: settle the issue of whether adults
Page 47 and 48: language had higher scores than stu
Page 49 and 50: Table 1. English proficiency and ye
Page 51 and 52: The "self-study" reinterpretation o
Page 53 and 54: series the evidence for learning is
Page 55 and 56: 4. The Domain of the Conscious Gram
Page 57 and 58: Ann Fathman, confirmed our earlier
Page 59 and 60: significant differences for any of
Page 61 and 62: Table 1. Studies analyzing grammati
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Table 3. Counterexamples to orderin
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Table 4 (cont.) ___________________
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ut *der Katze Ohr (The cat's ear).
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Research Findings 1. First language
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First-language-influenced errors he
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and (4) Ich weiss nicht, I know not
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ain", the right hemisphere, appears
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second language acquisition in adul
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hemisphere is removed, and the pati
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Monitor, to exist, and the degree t
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advantage in the first language. En
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while English "orients its users to
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7. On Routines and Patterns in Lang
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adulthood. A. Smith (1966) describe
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"That's a _______") which were char
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variation. Nelson, for example, dis
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which he had learned by imitation.
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and often incorporated them into hi
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what utterances mean by observing h
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Furthermore, she associated strings
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and patterns other than as discours
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similar difficulty orders for gramm
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understanding language that is "a l
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up to the intermediate level. As Wa
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practical only in a foreign languag
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is making some effort at making him
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It may be useful to distinguish thr
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the luxury of building up acquired
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marker /-s/, and the regular and ir
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to speak the language they were lea
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9. The Theoretical and Practical Re
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contact with. "Teacher-talk" is the
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language in Los Angeles. S. K. also
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Caretaker Speech and Language Acqui
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speech is so well rooted in the "he
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speech is: they are simpler than na
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Freed (1980) reports that foreigner
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e boredom. When they overshoot, the
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class was conducted entirely in Fre
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more expansions as well as repetiti
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Broen, P. (1972) The Verbal Environ
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Dulay, H. and M. Burt (1977) "Remar
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Hakuta, K. and H. Cancino (1977) "T
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Learning Aptitude. Rowley, Ma.: New
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Academy of Aphasia. Victoria, Briti
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Smith, A. (1966) "Speech and other
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Second Language Acquisition and Second ... - Stephen Krashen

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