Beyond Time - Linguistics - University of California, Berkeley

and reality-based. In Totela, both temporal and spatial dissociation are marked with -ka-,
which indicates both separation in time (prehodiernality) and in space (location other than
“perspective place”). .
Connections between temporal distance and spatial distance are attested cross-linguistically
(e.g. Bybee et al. 1994:103, Dahl 1985:125). Although the historical development was
likely not simultaneous (see 5.5 below), the morphological similarity of the forms in Totela
is worthy of note.
Slightly more tenuous, but still noteworthy, is the possible connection between posthodiernal
na- and a counterfactual past prefix na-, as in (284).
(284) kámbè bàkèzà, nátwàtàbá sùnù
kambe ba-ka-iz-a na-twa-tab-a
sunu
counter 3pl-dist-come-fv counter-1pl-become.happy-fv today
‘if they had come, we would have been happy today’ (ZT2009Elic133.AM)
Because na occurs in many contexts in Totela and other Bantu languages, few conclusions
may be drawn from the homophony. Both are likely descended from comitative na ‘with,
and’, which cross-linguistically takes at least ten different grammaticalization paths (Heine
& Kuteva 2002:79-90).
In any case, it is suggestive that both -ka- and na- are morphologically similar to other
markers with dissociative meaning: distal -ka- (‘not here’), and counterfactual/irrealis na-
(‘not real’). -ka- and na- mark temporal dissociation, and may be related to other dissociative
markers, as well. As shown in section 5.5.2, dissociative-like uses are evident for similar
markers in languages closely related to Totela.
5.3.2.2 Temporal properties of -ka- and -na-
Location and length of situation time Both -ka- and na- are illicit when used with
situations represented as holding on the day of perspective time. The connection between
hodiernality and temporal domain boundaries is discussed in 5.3.2.4. Beyond exclusion from
the hodiernal domain, there are few restrictions on the time periods that -ka- and na- can
refer to, which may be long ago or in the distant future, yesterday or tomorrow, as shown
for future situations with na- in (285) and (286).
(285) ìjìlò ná-ndì-là-y-á
kù-mpìlì
tomorrow posthod-1sg-LA-go-fv cl17(loc)-cl9.fields
‘tomorrow I’ll go to the fields’ (ZT2009Elic34)
(286) oyu, esi nabe omukulu nalaamba amakande aMachile
oyu esi na-b-e
omukulu
3sg.pron cond posthod.3sg-become-fv cl3.old.person
na-la-(w)amb-a
amakande a-Machile
posthod.3sg-noncmpl-speak-fv cl6.story cl6-Machile
‘when he is an old man, he will tell stories about Machile’ (ZT2006Elic32)
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