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164 EFFECTS OF EARLY MALTREATMENT AND STRESSperhaps critical target for intervention, ultimately the issue is that of the relevantsocial and economic context within which development occurs.AcknowledgmentThis chapter is adapted from Zhang, T., Bagot, R., Parent, C., Nesbitt, C., Bredy, T.W., Caldji, C., Fish, E., Anisman, H., Szyf, M., & Meaney, M. J. (2006). Maternal programmingof defensive responses through sustained effects on gene expression. BiologicalPsychology, 73, 72–89.ReferencesAmiel-Tison, C., Cabrol, D., Denver, R., Jarreau, P. H., Papiernik, E., & Piazza, P. V.(2004). Fetal adaptation to stress: Part II. Evolutionary aspects; stress-induced hippocampaldamage; long-term effects on behavior; consequences on adult health. EarlyHuman Development, 78, 81–94.Antoni, F. A. (1993). Vasopressinergic control of pituitary adrenocorticotropin secretioncomes of age. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 14, 76–122.Arborelius, L., Owens, M. J., Plotsky, P. M., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1999). The role of corticotropin-releasingfactor in depression and anxiety disorders. Journal of Endocrinology,160, 1–12.Arnsten, A. F. T. (2000). Stress impairs prefrontal cortical function in rats and monkeys:Role of dopamine D1 and norepinepherine a-1 receptor mechanisms. Progress in BrainResearch., 126, 183–192.Bakshi, V. P., Shelton, S. E., & Kalin, N. H. (2000). Neurobiological correlates of defensivebehaviors. Progress in Brain Research, 122, 105–115.Belsky, J. (1997). Attachment, mating, and parenting: An evolutionary interpretation.Human Nature, 8, 361–381.Bennett, A. J., Lesch, K. P., Heils, A., Long, J. C., Lorenz, J. G., Shoaf, S. E., Champoux,M., Suomi, S. J., Linnoila, M. V., & Higley, J. D. (2002). Early experience and serotonintransporter gene variation interact to influence primate CNS function. MolecularPsychiatry, 7, 118–122.Birrell, J. .M, & Brown, V. J. (2000). Medial frontal cortex mediates perceptual attentionalset shifting in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 4320–424.Boyle, M. P., Brewer, J. A., Funatsu, M., Wozniak, D. F., Tsien, J. Z., Izumi, Y., & Muglia,L. J. (2005). Acquired deficit of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor produces depression-likechanges in adrenal axis regulation and behavior. Proceedings of the NationalAcademy of Science, 102, 473–478.Brake, W. G., Zang, T. Y., Diorio, J., Meaney, M. J., & Gratton, A. (2004). Influence ofearly postnatal rearing conditions on mesocorticolimbic dopamine and behavioral responsesto psychostimulants and stress in adult rats. European Journal of Neuroscience,19, 1863–1874.Bredy, T. W., Diorio, J., Grant, R., & Meaney, M. J. (2003a). Maternal care influenceshippocampal neuron survival in the rat. European Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 2903–2909.

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