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34 BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL UNIVERSALSJudgments about competence of individuals or groups can be based on formaltests (e.g., school exams, driving tests) or informal expectations widely shared ina community. Scholars long have noted that there are developmentally based standardsfor behavior and achievement that serve as broad benchmarks for whetherlife is proceeding well or not (Masten, 2006b; Masten et al., 2006). Developmentaltasks can be universal (e.g., learning to communicate in early childhood) orlimited to a particular culture, gender, or time in history (e.g., learning to huntbuffalo). In many societies and cultures around the world at this time, adolescentsare expected to do well in school, prepare for their roles in society, obey the lawsof the society, commit themselves to the religion of the family or community, makefriends, and get along with people in the community. In the United States, mostadolescents are expected to begin working, driving, and socializing with potentialromantic partners. At some point, young people are expected to become competentwith respect to adult roles such as supporting a family, rearing children,and contributing to the community. As youth develop, the standards for meetingdevelopmental tasks also increase. This is not an accident, but most likely the resultof many generations of adults observing development and learning what youngpeople need to be doing at any particular point in development to succeed later onin that environment and culture. Individuals are judged against age-salient developmentaltask expectations that reflect a general growth of competence. Perceivedor actual failure in these developmental task domains may have important consequencesfor future competence, opportunities, self-esteem, reputation with othersand symptoms of psychopathology (Masten et al., 2006).Competence in age-salient developmental tasks is assumed to be the integratedresult of many processes and interactions at multiple levels of potential analysis,from the molecular to the macro-system level. Extensive research over the courseof decades in multiple fields and disciplines has been directed at understandingthe developmental processes involved in the achievement of competence or itsfailures (brain development, cognitive development, social development, intelligence,mental retardation, personality, criminology, learning, academic achievement,motivation, self efficacy, attachment, parenting, education, school climate,etc.). Some have focused on individual differences, including giftedness and negativedeviance, and others on normative patterns. Some have focused on changeitself and the transitions from one context or level of competence to another.Scaffolding is an important concept in the history of competence, capturing theidea that there are times in development when support is needed to bridge a developmentaltransition from one level to the next, when the child is not quite readyto function independently in a new context or new level of achievement. Thus,for example, just as a toddler can use a helping hand until he or she is a skilledwalker, an adolescent may need the support of parents, peers, or teachers in navigatingthe new demands of developmental tasks during adolescence or the transitionto adulthood. Scaffolding can be helpful, for example, when adolescents learn