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Resilience and Vulnerability to Trauma 353of the SF study (Morgan et al., 2000) indicated that specially trained soldiers,compared to non-SF subjects, demonstrated a more robust NPY response to stressand regained baseline NPY values within 24 hours after stress exposure. Thus,the SF troops had a more finely tuned SNS stress response that remained contained(in part by NPY) under pressure and returned rapidly to baseline after stress,reducing the likelihood of allostatic load.This finding could be explained in various ways. One interpretation is that theSF soldiers inherited a more effective NPY system that made admission to eliteSF group more likely. Alternatively, it is possible that the various challenging levelsof military training that led up to their acceptance into the SF and survival schooltraining program made them hardier and produced a more effective NPY system.Selected Psychobiological FactorsAssociated With ResilienceDynamically interrelated environmental, psychological, neurobiological, andgenetic elements contribute to human resilience. Of particular interest in the resilienceparadigm are a set of psychological factors including positive emotions,cognitive flexibility, moral compass, active coping style, and social support (Charney,2004; Southwick et al., 2005). These psychological attributes are thought to havea buffering effect on chronic stress and may contribute to an individual’s abilityto stave off psychopathology in the aftermath of trauma.Positive EmotionsPositive emotions, including positive attitude, optimism, and sense of humor arecharacteristic of resilient individuals. Optimism has been repeatedly correlatedwith increased psychological well-being and health (Affleck & Tennen, 1996;Goldman et al., 1996) and with greater life satisfaction (Klohnen, 1996). Also,positive emotions play a critical role in the capacity to tolerate stress; they areassociated with decreased occurrences of stress-related illnesses, reduced use ofmedical services, and fewer mood disturbances in individuals exposed to missileattacks (Zeidner & Hammer, 1992), breast cancer (Carver et al., 1993), and openheart surgery (Scheier et al., 1989). Positive affect in the context of chronic stressis thought to be adaptive, replenishing depleted emotional resources, relievingsuffering, and enhancing positive coping strategies (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000).Fredrickson (2001) proposes that positive emotions (e.g., joy, interest, contentment,pride, love) tend to broaden one’s focus and enhance an individual’s abilityto draw on healthier cognitive resources such as creativity and cognitive flexibility(Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Isen et al., 1987). Over time, the cognitive/affective broadening that accompanies positive emotion serves to build enduringphysical, psychological, and intellectual resources, and attracts social support