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380 REVERSIBLE DISORDERS OF BRAIN DEVELOPMENTcognitive outcomes in children (Chasnoff et al., 1998). Although the highly publicizedphenomenon of “crack babies” led to dire predictions of an irreparably damagedgeneration of children growing up in the inner city, in retrospect this wasoverreaction. Indeed, epidemiological studies have found the effects on cognitiveperformance to be subtle (Hurt et al., 1999; Mayes, 2002; Vidaeff & Mastrobattista,2003). For example, the low SES 4-year-olds of Hurt’s cohort, whose average IQwas 81, served as control subjects for a cohort with prenatal cocaine exposure, whoseaverage IQ was a statistically indistinguishable 79. This lack of difference contrastswith the substantial difference between both low SES groups’ IQ scores and thoseof middle SES children, the majority of whom have IQs of 90 or above.The set of potentially causative somatic factors just reviewed is far from complete.There are SES gradients in a wide variety of physical health measures, manyof which could affect children’s neurocognitive development through a varietyof different mechanisms (Adler et al., 1997). Having briefly reviewed the mostfrequently discussed factors, we turn now to a consideration of the psychologicaldifferences between the experiences of low and middle SES children that couldalso affect neurocognitive development.As with potential physical causes, the set of potential psychological causes forthe SES gap in cognitive achievement is large, and the causes are likely to exerttheir effects synergistically. Here we will review research on differences in cognitivestimulation and stress.One difference between low and middle SES families that seems predictable,even in the absence of any other information, is that low SES children are likelyto receive less cognitive stimulation than middle SES children. Their economicstatus alone predicts that they will have fewer toys and books and less exposureto zoos, museums, and other cultural institutions because of the expense of suchitems and activities. This is indeed the case (Bradley et al., 2001) and has beenidentified as a mediator between SES and measures of cognitive achievement(Bradley & Corwyn, 1999; Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997; McLoyd, 1998). Sucha mediating role is consistent with the results of neuroscience research with animals.Starting many decades ago (e.g., Volkmar & Greenough, 1972), researchersbegan to observe the powerful effects of environmental stimulation on braindevelopment. Animals reared in barren laboratory cages showed less well developedbrains by a number of different anatomical and physiological measures,compared with those reared in more complex environments with opportunities toclimb, burrow, and socialize (see van Praag et al., 2000, for a review).Other types of cognitive stimulation, for example parental speech designed toengage the child in conversation, are also less common in low SES homes (B. N.Adams, 1998). The average number of hours of one-on-one picture book readingexperienced by children prior to kindergarten entry has been estimated at 25 forlow SES children and between 1,000 and 1,700 for middle SES children (M. J.Adams, 1990). Thus, in addition to material limitations, differing parental expec-