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Socioeconomic Context 385outcome, and that at least part of this relationship is probably mediated by childhoodexperience. Better understanding of the causal connections among SES,childhood experience, and neurocognitive development may enable more rationallydesigned intervention programs for at-risk children and adolescents.AcknowledgmentsThe research described here was supported by the following grants from NIH: R21-DA01586, R01-HD043078, R01-DA14129, R01-DA18913, P30-HD269-04S2, and M01-RR00240.ReferencesAdams, B. N. (1998). The family: A sociological interpretation. New York: Harcourt Brace.Adams, M. J. (1990). Learning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme,S. L. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. AmericanPsychologist, 49, 15–24.Beitchman, J. H., Wilson, B., Johnson, C. J., et al. (2001, January). Fourteen-year followupof speech/language-impaired and control children: Psychiatric outcome. Journal ofthe American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(1), 75–82.Bellinger, D., Leviton, A., Waternaux, C., Needleman, H., & Rabinowitz, C. (1987).Longitudinal analyses of prenatal and postnatal lead exposure and early cognitive development.New England Journal of Medicine, 316, 1037–1043.Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (1999). Parenting. In C. L. B. Tamis-Lemonda (Ed.),Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary Issues (pp. 339–362). New York:Psychology Press.Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. F., McAdoo, H. P., & Garcia Coll, C. (2001). “The homeenvironments of children in the United States. Part 1: Variations by age, ethnicity, andpoverty-status. Child Development, 72, 1844–1867.Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. The Futureof Children, 7, 55–71.Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). Home observation for measurement of theenvironment (HOME). Little Rock: University of Arkansas.Capron, C., & Duyme, M. (1989). Assessment of effects of socio-economic status on IQin a full cross-fostering study. Nature, 340, 552–554.Case, R. (1992). The role of the frontal lobes in the regulation of cognitive development.Brain and Cognition, 20, 51–73.Chasnoff, I. J., Anson, A., Hatcher, R., Stenson, H., Iaukea, K., & Randolph, L. (1998).Prenatal exposure to cocaine and other drugs: Outcome at four to six years. Annals ofthe New York Academy of Sciences, 846, 314–328.Davis, E. P., Bruce, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2002). The anterior attention network: associationswith temperament and neuroendocrine activity in 6-year-old children. DevelopmentalPsychobiology, 40, 43–56.