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446 EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONSexecutive function and verbal communication. First, verbal ability can be used asa tool for internal representation (self-talk), which in turn serves as one mechanismfor inhibiting behavior (Luria, 1966). Second, internal representation allowschildren to plan and sequence goal-directed behavior in response to challengingsocial situations. Therefore, although executive function and verbal skills are distinctiveabilities, it is likely that they are strongly associated (Kusche & Greenberg,in press).The Link Between Neurocognition and AdolescentSocial and Emotional DevelopmentConsiderable evidence suggests that deficits in neurocognitive abilities duringchildhood and adolescence are linked with the development of problem and riskybehavior. Much of this research involves concurrent negative associations betweenadolescents’ neurocognitive abilities and conduct problems (Hill, 2002; Lahey,Loeber, Hart, Frick, et al., 1995; Lynam & Henry, 2001), delinquency (Brickman,McManus, Grapentine, & Alessi, 1984; Lynam, Moffitt, & Stouthamer-Loeber,1995; Spellacy, 1977; Moffitt & Henry, 1989; White, Moffitt, Caspi, Jeglum-Bartusch, Needles, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1994), and substance abuse (Deckel &Hesselbrock, 1996; Giancola, Martin, Tarter, Pelham, & Moss, 1996; Giancola,Mezzich, & Tarter, 1998; Giancola & Tarter, 1999). Relations between neurocognitiveabilities and aspects of problem behavior have also been found in youngerchildren (Cole, Usher, & Cargo, 1993; Speltz, DeKlyen, Calderon, Greenberg, &Fisher, 1999). There has been little research on the relation between neurocognitiveabilities and depression in adolescence.Moffitt (1993) has argued that delinquent children exhibit deficits in a numberof executive abilities (i.e., abstract reasoning, concept-formation, inhibitory control,problem-solving behavior, planning, and sustained attention). White et al.(1994) found empirical support for this argument in demonstrating a link betweenimpulsivity and delinquency in 10-, 12-, and 13-year-old children. Their studyestablished that undercontrolled, restless, impatient, and impulsive children weresignificantly more delinquent than children who were less impulsive. Furthermore,Spellacy (1977) found that among delinquent individuals, those considered to beviolent offenders have been shown to score even worse on presumed measures ofneurocognitive functioning. Cauffman, Steinberg, and Piquero (2004) reportedthat both spatial span (which assesses an aspect of working memory) and difficultiesin self-control predict adolescent offender status. Others have demonstratedthat deficient neurocognitive function may also be associated with increased riskfor alcohol and other substance abuse (Giancola, et al., 1996; Giancola, et al., 1998;Giancola & Tarter, 1999).