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444 EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTIONSThe frontal cortex, situated in the anterior region of the brain, provides secondaryprocessing of emotions at a more sophisticated level than does the limbic system.Specifically, emotion information, processed in the limbic system, travelsthrough ascending neurons to the frontal cortex, which is the only neocortical sitein which this information is represented (Damasio, 1994). The frontal cortex thentransmits information back to the limbic system to modify emotion signals and tothe sensory-motor cortex to influence potential behaviors (LeDoux, 1996).Executive Function and the Developmentof Vertical Control in ChildhoodThe developmental achievement of higher-order cognitive processes exertingcontrol over lower-level limbic impulses is known as “vertical control.” Childrenand young adolescents are not capable of exercising full vertical control until thefrontal cortex itself, and the neural pathways connecting the frontal cortex to thelimbic system, have fully developed. Frontal-cortical development progressesquickly from birth to the second year of life, and then is followed by another growthspurt from about 4 to 7 years of age (Luria, 1973). After this, there are less dramaticincreases in the growth of frontal lobe volume. However, early in adolescence(around 10–11 years of age), the pruning process begins to sculpt and moldthe frontal lobes, and continues to do so at least into early adulthood (Gogtay,Giedd, Rapoport, 2002; Sowell et al., 2003). This time course of morphologicaldevelopment distinguishes the frontal cortex as one of the last brain regions toachieve functional maturity (Dempster & Corkill, 1999; Diamond, 1990) and thusthe most likely to be influenced by environmental input. Compared to adults, teensalso show less consistency in suppressing prepotent responses, a central functionof the prefrontal cortex (Luna & Sweeny, 2004). As a result, they show more risktakingbehavior and may be more susceptible to impulsive decisions when highlyemotionally aroused.With the development of the frontal lobes comes the development of “executivefunction” (Pennington & Ozonoff, 1996; Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser,1991). Executive function (EF) generally refers to the psychological processesthat are involved in the conscious control of thought and that have been linked toprefrontal cortex (PFC). Examples of processes believed to be involved in consciouscontrol of thought are inhibition, future time orientation, consequentialthinking, and the planning, initiation, and regulation of goal-directed behavior(Luria, 1972).Developmental delays and/or damage to the frontal cortex can have substantialimplications for the development of EF, and consequently children’s behavioraldevelopment (Raine, 2002). For example, variations in EF functions have beenrelated to difficulties in such behavioral domains as distractibility, impulsivity,inattention, language processing, and foresight necessary for behavior regulation,and recognition of the consequences of actions from early childhood through