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Modifying Brain Networks 413finding suggested that training effects had generalized to a measure of cognitiveprocessing that is far removed from the training exercises. We did not observechanges in temperament over the course of the training, but this was expected,due to the short time elapsing between assessment sessions.Analysis of the EEG data showed clear evidence of improvements due to training.As described above, the N2 is a component of the scalp-recorded ERP thathas been shown to arise in the anterior cingulate and is related to the resolution ofconflict (Rueda et al., 2004c; van Veen & Carter, 2002). In figure 18-4 we showthe event-related potentials (ERPs) of adults and trained and nontrained 6-yearoldchildren performing the child ANT. Results are shown for a central electrode(Cz) and a more frontal midline electrode. As in previous studies, adults show alarger N2 for incongruent than for congruent trials (shown at the bottom left-handcolumn of figure 18-4 marked by arrow). The 6-year-old children without trainingshowed no evidence of larger N2 activity for the incongruent trials in this electrode’slocation (see figure 18-4, bottom right-hand panel). However, after training childrenin the experimental group showed the same pattern as the adults (see figure18-4, bottom center panel, marked by arrow). There is some evidence that a similargreater negativity for incongruent trials emerges somewhat later and at more prefrontalchannels in nontrained 6-year-olds (see figure 18-4 Fz top right marked byarrow) and also in trained 4-year-olds (not shown in the figure). These data suggestthat the training has altered the network in a more adultlike direction.There is further evidence in the literature with older children who suffer fromattention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) that using attention training methodscan produce improvement in the ability to concentrate and in tests of generalintelligence (Kerns, Esso, & Thompson, 1999; Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg,2002; Shavlev, Tsal, & Mevorach, 2003). As a result, we are working with othergroups carrying out these exercises in children with learning-related problems suchas ADHD and autism. These projects will test whether the programs are efficaciouswith children who have special difficulties with attention as part of their disorder.We also hope to have preschools adopt attention training as a specific part of theircurriculum. Viewing the attentional system as central for the successful developmentof cognitive and emotional regulation of behavior, it is expected that a moreextensive training of attention will result in improving self-regulatory capacities.Gene-Environment InteractionThe existence of gene by environment interaction is not controversial, and it iswell known that gene expression can be influenced by the microenvironment ofthe brain area where it is expressed. There is also ample evidence that in primates,gene expression can be influenced by events, which, like maternal separation, canbe a part of human development (Soumi, 2003).