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188 EFFECTS OF EARLY MALTREATMENT AND STRESSof AVP in cerebrospinal fluid (Gjerris, Hammer, Vendsborg, Christensen, &Rafaelson, 1985), or no differences (Heuser et al., 1998). Of particular relevancemay be the observation that the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors(SSRIs) is associated with both increased OT and reductions in AVP (Altemus,Cizza, & Gold, 1992; De Bellis, Gold, Geracioti, Listwak, & Kling, 1993; Uvnas-Moberg, Bjokstrand, Hillegaart, & Ahlenius, 1999). There is a paucity of descriptiveresearch in which OT or AVP is either measured or manipulated. The historyof individuals being studied must be carefully measured. Technological advances,such as the ability to use in vivo imaging technology to examine OT and AVPreceptor levels, are needed for a more precise description of the role of OT andAVP in human behavior (Carter and Altemus, 2004).Another area of adolescent psychopathology in which neuropeptides may playa role is aggression. In animal studies, AVP has been implicated in various typesof defensive behavior including mating-induced aggression (Winslow et al., 1993)and resident-intruder aggression (Bester-Meredith, Martin, & Marler, 2005; Ferris,2000; Ferris et al., 1994). The levels of aggression in rodents can vary accordingto previous experience and developmental exposures (Bales et al., 2003a; Ferris,2000). In personality-disordered human subjects, CSF AVP was positively correlatedwith a history of aggression (Coccaro, Kavoussi, Hauger, Cooper, & Ferris,1998),. Once more, whether these relationships are causal or not remains to bedetermined, and it is possible that actions of neuropeptides, including OT and AVP,on these disorders may be mediated through secondary effects on visceral states,including anxiety and arousal (Carter et al., 2004).The adolescent period of life is characterized by constant change and challenge.Understanding—especially in a life-span context—the neuroendocrine basis of socialbonding and related positive social experiences provides a window into the mechanismsthrough which positive social behaviors and related physiological-visceralstates may buffer individuals in the face of such challenges. It is plausible that adverseearly experiences, either due to pharmacological exposure, differentialparenting, or a history of trauma, might create vulnerabilities to subsequent emotionaland cognitive disorders, such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, or evenautism (Teicher, et al., 2003). Repeated findings of sex differences also are of considerablerelevance to adolescent psychology and probably interact with early experiences.Further knowledge of the neuroendocrine foundations of gender-baseddifferences, including those that may be exacerbated during adolescence, may aidin understanding individual differences in both normal and atypical behaviors.AcknowledgmentsThis research was funded by the National Alliance for Autism Research, IRUL #322,and NIH P01 HD 38490 to CSC, NIH R01 MH073022 to CSC and KLB, NRSA F32 HD