wise use of mires and peatlands - Peatland Ecology Research Group

VALUES AND FUCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS45CHAPTER 3.VALUES AND FUNCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDSThis chapter sets out the types of values that human beings use in making choices betweenalternative benefits. It sets out the different benefits which are derived from mires and peatlands.A substantial number of experts have contributed material for this chapter.3.1. WHAT ARE VALUES? 1Solving conflicts between different uses ofmires and peatlands (for example, betweeneconomic utilisation and environmentalconservation) in a rational way presupposesan understanding of the various values 2 atstake. There are at least three fundamentallydifferent approaches to what values are 3 :■■■In the idealistic approach, based on ancientGreek philosophy, values are regarded asideal and objective, independent of the realworld. It is assumed that these values areknown through a special “intuitus”.Followers of this approach are currentlyrare 4 .In the naturalistic approach, values areregarded as objective properties of anentity 5 , independent of the person makingthe valuation. Things in the real world areconsidered to have value, just as they havemass or velocity. Several world religionsand contemporary environmentalphilosophers defend this approach 6 .In the preference approach, values areregarded as properties assigned by avaluer, resulting from the preferences of theperson making the valuation. “Absolute”values do not exist. Each person is free tovalue entities as he or she feels about them.Consequent on the many different resultingpreferences, a great variety of valuestandardsexist. None of these valuestandardscan be considered “better” or“worse” than the others except when otherpremises make them so. Most experts invalue theory (axiology) currently supportthis preference approach.Values are generally divided into twocategories:● Instrumental values are clear means to anend (“instruments”). Instrumental value isequal to function 7 : the beneficial effect ofan entity on another entity. Instrumentalvalues can be studied systematically byscience and are therefore more objectivethan intrinsic values.● Entities that are to be respected as such,i.e. independent from everything else, aresaid to have intrinsic moral value (or“moral standing”).The existence of intrinsic moral values islogically included in the idea of a mean-endrelationship, when a chain of means(instrumental values) is considered to cometo an end at something which has value assuch (intrinsic value) 8 . Consequently eventhe preference approach has ultimately toidentify objects with “intrinsic value”, i.e. thatdeserve moral respect for their own sake,independent of whether we prefer it or not. 9It is therefore a central question to identifywhich entities have such intrinsic moral value,to which entities we have moral obligations,and for what reasons.