wise use of mires and peatlands - Peatland Ecology Research Group

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94 VALUES AND FUCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS●●violated, in the interests of decreasing thesuffering of human beings who suffer whennon-human beings are violated (thesentimental argument);acting as though they also have intrinsic value,to avoid the possibility that some people willtreat human beings in the same way as nonhumanbeings are sometimes treated - thepsychological prudential argument. (“Peoplewho delight in the suffering and destruction ofinferior creatures, will not … be verycompassionate, or benign, to those of theirown kind.” John Locke, 1693).considering them together with human beings,as interdependent and inseparable parts ofecosystems (the ecological argument) (Watson1979).21Similar concepts include the “balance of nature”,“nature knows best”, and “Gaia” inenvironmentalism, and the free market ideologyin political economy.22See also §4.9.23Example: Conferring intrinsic moral value ongreat apes (the “easiest” non-anthropocentricposition, because these animals are self-consciousand able to think abstractly) implies that theirnatural habitats must be taken into moralconsideration, e.g. the orang-utan mires inSoutheast Asia. This is not because these rarespecies have an instrumental (e.g. informational)value for human beings, but because the individualapes have intrinsic value, in the same way ashuman rights have to be respected, not becauseHomo sapiens is a rare species, but becauseindividual human beings have intrinsic value.24Cf. Norton 1991.25De Groot 1992, Naveh 1994.26Resources which can be divided betweenindividuals.27Resources which are common to all and cannotbe divided between individuals.28Jointly called “informational functions” by DeGroot 1992. To a large extent, these valuesinclude what some philosophers call“eudaimonistic values” (after ευδαιμονιαeudaimonia) = Greek “good life”) that generallyenrich life and that are experienced as “good inthemselves” (Seel 1991).29Some examples: We enjoy company (socialamenityvalues) because during human evolutionco-operation (and therewith its direct individualdriving force: the pleasure in social contact) hasbeen more effective for survival and propagationthan individualism (Callicott 1988, Diamond1991, Maynard Smith & Szathmáry 1995).Similarly lying in the sun (recreation values) isenjoyable, as it enables our skin to produce theindispensable vitamin D. We like outdoorexperiences because of the resulting stressmitigation (Hartig et al. 1991, Kellert 1993).Aesthetics can be seen as a rapid and integratedordering and evaluation of a complex set ofproperties (Berlyne 1971, Kellert 1997). Ourpredisposition to see beauty in savannah-likelandscapes, sunsets, quiet waters, and containedfires goes back to the human past as huntergatherers,when these experiences were associatedwith food and water availability, safety, andsecurity (Ulrich 1993, Heerwagen & Orians 1993,White & Heerwagen 1998). In the same way,human beings are genetically averse to snakes (afear and fascination we share with African andAsian monkeys and apes), dogs, spiders, enclosedspaces, running water, blood, and heights (Ulrich1993). We are quick to develop fear and evenphobias with very little negative reinforcement(Öhman 1986). Few modern artefacts are aseffective - even those most dangerous, such asguns, knives, automobiles, and electric wires(McNally 1987, Wilson 1993, Kellert 1997). Ourerotic preferences instinctively focus - via subtleolfactory sensations (smells)- on people withcomplementary immune systems (Wedekind etal. 1995, Wedekind & Furi 1997, Cutler 1999).We like salt and fat because in our pre-humansavannah past it was beneficial to swallow thefull supply of these rare goods whenever theywere available (Shepard 1998). Bodily symmetryand beauty seems to indicate health (Cf. Manninget al. 1999, Scheib et al. 1999, Thornill &Grammer 1999). Flowers signal future availabilityof fruits and honey (being the evolutionarybackground to giving flowers to sick people andhosts, Heerwagen & Orians 1993), animalsscanning the countryside or a startled expressionon a person’s face alert to dangers (Heerwagen &Orians 1993, Darwin 1998) (signalisation values).30An unlimited consumption of sun and fat forexample may lead to skin cancer and cardiacdiseases.31Symbolisation values might be considered the “selfconscious”offshoots of indicator values; spiritual,existence, and history values as the offshoots ofsocial and amenity values; cognition values asthose of aesthetic values.32In contrast to proxy functions, identity functionsare not only “consumed” but also to some extent“produced” by human beings themselves (“identification“). Our “world-views” not only rest on“objective” observations, but also on subjectiveinterpretations and projections. This applies forexample for history (cf. Walsh 1967, Harmsen1968, Marwick 1989), science (cf. Popper 1959,Kuhn 1984, Bartels 1987), and spirituality andreligion (Midgley 1996, Wilson 1998, cf.Xenophanes 6th century BC in Fairbanks 1898:“But mortals suppose that the gods are born (asthey themselves are), and that they wear man’sclothing and have human voice and body. But ifcattle or lions had hands, so as to paint with theirhands and produce works of art as men do, theywould paint their gods and give them bodies inform like their own - horses like horses, cattlelike cattle.”).33Based on information from Timo Nyronen.34Joosten 2001.35Xuehui & Yan 1994.36Based on information from Piotr Ilnicki. Cf. alsoLishtvan 1996.37From Sirin & Minaeva 2001. This Figure includes
VALUES AND FUCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS95all extracted peat but is given here to illustratethe dramatic fall in extraction which is due inpart to the reduction in the use of peat inagriculture.38Based on information from Gerald Schmilewski.Cf. also Schmilewski 1996.39Source: IPS 2000 Survey. These figures may notbe consistent as different moisture contents maybe used. However, the purpose of the table is toindicate trends.40Van Schie 2000.41Joosten 1995.42Turner 1993.43Coir fibre dust is a by-product of the coconutprocessing industry.44Van Schie 2000. The table requires interpretationsince a substantial part of the peat reported to beused in Germany is exported to the Netherlandsand again included in the figures for theNetherlands.45Based on information from Charles Shier. Cf.also Asplund 1996.46Leinonen et al. 1997.47Cf. Changlin et al. 1994, Xuehui & Yan 1994.48Source: IPS 2000. The figures are not strictlyconsistent, as different countries estimate tonnesin relation to different moisture contents. Inaddition, the table combines milled and sod peatat different moisture contents. However, thepurpose of the table is to indicate trends. It isclear that production of peat for energy hassubstantially reduced in the countries of theformer Soviet Union and in Ireland.49For 1999 or earlier years, depending on theavailability of information. Based on the workof the Energy Peat Working Group ofCommission II of the IPS.50First National Communication to the UNFCCC1995. Interagency Commission of the RussianFederation on Climate Change Problems, Moscow.51Based on information from Nikolai Bambalov.For an extensive overview cf. also Fuchsman1980, Lishtvan 1996.52A soft surface on fabric or leather.53Zagwijn & Harsveldt 1973.54Gerding 1998. The peak production was in 1975when 230,000 tonnes of peat were used to produce25,000 tonnes of activated carbon.55Based on information from Henk van de Griendt.56O’Gorman 2002.57Based on information from Eugene Bolton. Cf.also Mutka 1996.58Viraraghaven 1991, Viraraghaven & Rana 1991.See also many other contributions in Overend &Jeglum 1991.59Based on information from Marjatta Pirtola. Cf.also Pirtola 1996.60Kelleher 1953.61Material compiled by Raimo Sopo and DonalClarke. Cf. also Fenton 1987.62Feehan & O’Donovan 1996.63Turner 1993.64Moore & Bellamy 1974.65Based on information from Gerd Lüttig andNikolai Bambalov. Cf. also Korhonen & Lüttig^1996, Lishtvan 1996, Lüttig 2000.66Turner 1993.67Based on information from Allan Robertson. Seealso Robertson 1975.68Xuehui & Yan 1994.69Cf. Safford & Maltby 1998. Cf. UNESCO 1978.70http://www.gn.apc.org/eco/resguide/2_20.html71Butcher et al. 1995.72Cf. Saeijs & Van Berkel 1997.73Grundling et al. 1998.74Ong & Mailvaganam 1992, Lee & Chai 1996,Page & Rieley 1998.75Personal communication from David Price,Institute of Hydrology, Scotland, 2000.76Cf. Salo 1996.77Joosten 2001.78Dent 1986.79http://www.econ.upm.edu.my/~peta/sago/sago.html; Stanton & Flach 1980.80Personal communication from Lenka Papackova.81Based on information from WendelinWichtmann. Cf. also Wichtmann 2000.82Björk & Granéli, 1978, Brenndörfer et al., 1994,Schmitz-Schlang, 1995, Schäffer et al. 1996,Kaltschmidt & Reinhardt, 1997; Michel-Kim,1998, Schäfer et al., 2000.83Sjörs 1993.84Elling & Knighton 1984, Whinam & Buxton1997, Whinam et al. 2000, www.losvolcanos.com85Rodewald-Rodescu 1974, Thesinger 1964, Hawke& José 1996, Schäfer 1999, Weijs 1990, Yuqin etal. 1994, Scott 1995.86Denny 199387Wichtmann et al. 2000.88E.g. Schäfer & Degenhardt 1999.89Succow 1988. For mire types, see §2.3.90E.g. imports from South- and East-Europeancountries and from Turkey into Germany, cf.Schäfer 1999.91Including reed (Phragmites australis), cattails(Typha spp., Theuerkorn et al. 1993, Wild et al.2001, sedges (Carex spp.) and grasses (e.g.Phalaris arundinacea), alder (Alnus, Lockow1997).92Wichtmann et al. 2000.93Wichtmann, 1999b.94Wild et al. 200195Rodewald-Rodescu 1974, Landström & Olsson1998, Nilsson et al. 199896Lange 1997, Soyez et al. 1998.97Based on information collected by ThomasHeinicke. For information on plants in tropicalpeat swamp forests used for medicinal purposessee Safford & Maltby 1998.98Cf. Van Os 1962, Simkûsite 1989 Elina 1993,Fuke 1994, Rongfen 1994, Hämet-Ahti et al.1998, Safford & Maltby 1998.99Williams 1982, Verhoeven & Liefveld 1997.100Varley & Barnett 1987.101Porter 1917, Nichols 1918a, b, Thieret 1956.102Chikov 1980.103After Chikov 1980.104McAlpine & Waarier Limited 1996.105Kirsch 1995.
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WISE USEOF MIRES AND PEATLANDS -BAC
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IMCG/IPS STATEMENT3CONTENTSGuide to
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IMCG/IPS STATEMENT5References .....
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IMCG/IPS STATEMENT7Peatlands are na
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IMCG/IPS STATEMENT9use of the peatl
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GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT11a
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GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT13A
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GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT15b
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INTRODUCTION19resources. These help
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INTRODUCTION211998 Peatlands Under
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INTRODUCTION23●●●●●●●
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS252.2 PEAT FORMA
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS27Table 2/1: Eco
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS29Figure 2/3: Hy
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS31peat formation
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS33Outside the tr
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS35decay in the c
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS37formed peat an
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS39
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MIRES AND PEATLANDS41differs in thi
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE145Surwold Me
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE147Peatland-l
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE149Marine tra
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE151Bog prepar
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE153Peat-fired
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE155Cattle on
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE157Pristine p
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE159Fire on a
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FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE16171See §§
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS163Ba
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS165De
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS167Fo
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS169In
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS171No
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS173Pi
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS175So
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GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS177Vo
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS179Lindsay, Richard
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS181International Pe
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APPENDICES183APPENDICES
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APPENDIX I185Original 2002 2002Coun
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APPENDIX I187Philippines 300,000 10
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APPENDIX I189Country Total area Pea
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APPENDIX I191Country Total area Pea
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APPENDIX I193The other important as
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APPENDIX 2195Region Methane emissio
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APPENDIX 2197A2.3 THE ROLE OF PEATL
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APPENDIX 21991200010000FensBogskg C
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APPENDIX 2201Total C in 10 9 gUndis
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APPENDIX 2203source of carbon dioxi
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APPENDIX 4205APPENDIX 4PATTERNS OF
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APPENDIX 4207license from the relev
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APPENDIX 52093. Quality of decision
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APPENDIX 6211APPENDIX 6CODE OF COND
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APPENDIX 7213APPENDIX 7INTERNATIONA
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APPENDICES2151Based on information
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REFERENCES217REFERENCESAardema, M.,
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REFERENCES219Bedford, B.L., 1999, C
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REFERENCES221morning. Hunting and n
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REFERENCES223Application of static
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REFERENCES225Amsterdam, pp. 35-65.F
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REFERENCES227beautiful). Proceeding
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REFERENCES229595 p.IPCC, 1995, Clim
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REFERENCES231der Sitten (Ed. by Kra
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REFERENCES233are you harvested. Rev
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REFERENCES235Marschner, H., 1995, M
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REFERENCES237wet relationship. Tran
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REFERENCES239Växtsociologiska Säl
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REFERENCES241Peatland, Sarawak, Mal
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REFERENCES243Schäfer, A., and Dege
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REFERENCES245Sirin, A.A., Minaeva T
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REFERENCES247Princeton University P
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REFERENCES249Kluwer Academic Publis
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REFERENCES251Event, p. 222.Whinam,
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INDEX253INDEXAAapa mire 30, 42, 81,
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INDEX255Arrhenius Svante 99Art/arti
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INDEX257Black peat 41, 54, 56, 58,
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INDEX259Carex canescens 27Carex ces
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INDEX261Cloud condensation nuclei 7
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INDEX263Cross purposes 103Cross-cou
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INDEX265Dutch Foundation for the Co
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INDEX267Eurasia 60, 75, 196Europe 3
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INDEX269Freedom from arbitrary arre
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INDEX271Growing media 51-53, 136, 1
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INDEX273Hydrologic characteristics
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INDEX275ISO 14001 136Isotope 169Iso
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INDEX277Lathyrus palustris 27Latk F
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INDEX279Management Guidelines 19, 2
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REFERENCES281Modifiers 120, 127-128
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REFERENCES283New Caledonia 191New Z
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REFERENCES285PPacific North West 71
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REFERENCES287Photochemically active
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REFERENCES289Product diversificatio
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REFERENCES291Research 100Research n
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REFERENCES293Scotland 58, 59, 98Sco
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REFERENCES295Song of the Peatbog So
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REFERENCES297Suspended solids 56, 8
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REFERENCES299Triglochin palustre 27
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REFERENCES301Verlandungsmoore 26Ver
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REFERENCES303Wool 57Works of art 83
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