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Turkey's Relations with the European Union in Comparative-Historical Perspective 109
Community in the following years and particularly from Germany, which historically
has been the principal recipient of migrant labour from Turkey. 4
Looking back, three fundamental motives can be discerned in Turkey’s application
for associate membership status during this period. The first key consideration
was essentially an identity issue. Closer relations with the emerging European Economic
Community seemed perfectly consistent with the fundamental goals of
building and maintaining a secular, democratic and western-oriented state. Closer
relations with the EEC would also help to diversify Turkey’s external relations and
reduce the country’s overdependence on the United States. A second major consideration
was to prevent Greece from taking unfair advantage in its subsequent bilateral
relations with Turkey. The timing of Turkey’s application for associate membership
clearly highlights the importance attached to containing Greece as an
objective in its own right. Thirdly, the long-term benefits, which might be generated
through closer interaction with a powerful economic union also proved to be a central
guiding principle.
In retrospect, a defensive attitude was a dominant element in the minds of the
Turkish political elite. Indeed, in both Greece and Turkey a consensus of opinion
appeared to exist across the whole of the political spectrum, an opinion which the
business community in the two societies strongly subscribed to, that premature
trade liberalisation and early exposure to strong competitive pressures from the EC
would jeopardise domestic industrial development. Hence, the long transition periods
envisaged by the association agreements – twenty-two years in the Turkish
case extending from 1973 to 1995 – were wholeheartedly accepted in the domestic
policy circles of the two countries in the 1960s and the early 1970s. 5
The year 1973 marked the climax of Turkey’s relations with the Community
following the signing of the Additional Protocol, which implied a significant lowering
of protectionist barriers in the EC for Turkish manufactured exports on a unilateral
basis, with certain key exceptions such as textiles. 6 It might be argued that in
1973 there was no fundamental discrepancy between the expectations of Turkish
political elites and actual progress made in relations with the Community in line
4. For the original text of the “Agreement Establishing an Association Between the European Economic
Community and Turkey”, which was signed at Ankara, on 1 September 1963, the so-called
“Ankara Agreement”, see http://www.mfa.gov.tr/grupa/ad/adc/mfa303.htm (25.01.2001).
5. For a comprehensive analysis of the stage by stage process of integration envisaged by the Ankara
Agreement leading up to the Customs Union see C. BALKIR, The Customs Union and Beyond, in:
L. RITTENBERG (ed.), The Political Economy of Turkey in the Post-Soviet Era. Going West and
Looking East?, Westport Connecticut, 1998, pp.51-78.
6. For the original text of the Additional Protocol see http://www.mfa.gov.tr/grupa/ad/adab/
Document2.pdf (25.01.2001). As part of the Additional Protocol, by 1973, the EC had abolished
all customs duties and quotas for Turkish manufactured products with the exceptions of textiles
and clothing. On the details of the Additional Protocol see C. BALKIR, The Customs Union and
Beyond, op.cit.