The cultural context of biodiversity conservation - Oapen

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118 The cultural context of biodiversity conservation in the conquest, and it has been reborn in every subsequent generation (1988: 284). The experienced history of exploitation, exclusion and repression that created a culture of mistrust still shapes the dynamics between the nation-state and civil society and affects the relations between indigenous communities and official agencies, including institutions involved in environmental policies. Nevertheless, in view of the concessions formally established in the peace accords and taking into account the increasing importance of local governance in current trends towards decentralisation as well as relevant constitutional and institutional reforms, the negotiations and efforts may contribute to overcoming the long-standing ignorance of the indigenous people and enhance their participation in decision-making processes at all levels of society. 4.1.4 Environmental policies The recent past of political instability has seriously impoverished the country and at the same time encouraged an ongoing process of deterioration in environmental terms. Until the mid-1980s, the military-dominated governments supported a development policy designed to exploit the natural resources for export purposes. The effects of this approach included the expansion in the fields of agro-export, cattle ranching, mining and oil drilling, which all contributed to a high rate of deforestation. As a consequence, some 65 percent of the country's original forests have been destroyed in the past three decades (Berger 1997: 99f.). 19 Amidst these circumstances, a small and urban-based environmental movement emerged that achieved substantial success. In 1989, the Congress created a national system of protected areas, the Sistema Guatemalteco de Areas Protegidas. 20 Founded on the concept of sustainable development, the framework acknowledges that »the state of natural resources and the environment in general in Guatemala have risen to such critical levels of deterioration that it is directly affecting the quality of life of the inhabitants and ecosystems of the country, obliging us to take immediate action in order to guarantee a favourable environment for the future« (Berger 1997: 103). 19 Deforestation, ranging from 1,080 to 1,620 km 2 per year, principally occurred in the country's north, in the departments Petén, Izabal and Alta Verapaz. According to CONAP (1999: 88), the forest cover declined between 1992 and 1998 from 31.3 to 26.6 percent of the national territory, which is a decrease of 15 percent in just five years. The cutting of rain forests is partially the result of macro-economic forces such as transnational corporations that export timber and drill for oil. However, the level of deforestation caused by slash-and-burn farming and in firewood production has scarcely been examined (Hallum 2003: 60). 20 The system of protected areas in the north of Guatemala provides protection for more than 25,000 km 2 of tropical forest. The Maya Biosphere Reserve incorporates numerous pre-existing reserves and biotopes into a more comprehensive conservation programme. The volume Timber, Tourists, and Temples. Conservation and Development in the Maya Forest of Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico by Primack et al. (1998) discusses ecological, social and political issues as encountered in the area. Consider also Strategies for Authenticity, Space, and Place in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Petén, Guatemala by Sundberg (1998), who examined how conservation projects are being articulated in the discourses at the local level and how relationships between NGOs and local people transform landscapes and identities in the struggle for control over the reserve and its natural resources.
The local context Moreover, the return to civilian rule in the mid-1990s created a new space for political activism and led to significant accomplishments in environmental policies. Beyond official recognition at the national level, the global proceedings informed by the UN- CED in Rio led to the emergence and strengthening of further conservational initiatives. Since the country ratified the CBD in 1995, a national biodiversity strategy has been formally established that also includes considerations relating to article 8(j). 21 The strategy is mainly based on the establishment of protected areas, but also includes landscapes and natural sites of social, cultural and spiritual importance to be considered in the frame of in situ conservation. 22 In addition, the need to establish mechanisms to protect indigenous knowledge relating to natural resource use has been politically acknowledged in the aforementioned Agreement on Identity and Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In this document, attention is also drawn to the protection and sustainable use of the country's biological resources. The agreement underlies the need to guarantee the rights of indigenous peoples to participate in the use, administration and conservation of the resources existing in their lands, including the regulation of land tenure, the restitution of communal lands, the compensation for dispossession and the acquisition of land for the development of indigenous communities (Stavenhagen 2003: 11). 23 Providing legal mechanisms for environmental conservation and local participation is a first step in the long-term protection of natural resources. The more difficult task follows in the effective management of designated areas of conservational importance. Despite official announcements and formal directives, Lehnhoff and Nuñez (1998: 137) mention shortcomings in the development of essential aspects of national strategies. More specifically, they refer to the governmental funding for environmental agencies, which has been insufficient in the past. 24 Due to the lack of national funds, international and national conservation organisations have supported a variety of protected area operations throughout the country, but this does not sufficiently ensure 21 See Estrategia Nacional para la conservación y uso sostenible de la Biodiversidad y Plan de Acción Guatemala by CONAP (1999). For an account of the importance of biodiversity in Guatemalan society, consider Castañeda Salguero et al. (1995). 22 Apart from the numerous protected areas throughout the country, Guatemala also forms part of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, which is one of the world's largest transboundary conservation initiatives focusing on all Central American countries. The initiative aims to create ecological corridors that facilitate the movement of animals and the genetic exchange of species, which is essential to their survival. Covering only 0.5 percent of the world's terrestrial area, Central America contains 5 percent of all known biodiversity. Thus, the forests from southern Mexico to Panama have been included in the list of the 25 global biodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier & Konstant 2001: 18). 23 For details on the emergence and implementation of the AIDPI, which also urges academic institutions and agencies working in the field of rural development and environmental conservation to promote contributions of the indigenous peoples and to encourage the dissemination of their specific customary notions and practices, consider Amry (1999). 24 In general, the protected areas are administered by the government agency CONAP, under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. A total of 172 protected areas, including national parks, wildlife reserves and multiple-use reserves making up 25.3 percent of the national territory (World Resources Institute 2003). An analysis of the Guatemalan conservation policy and national institutions charged with the management of natural resources and conservation programmes has been provided by Berger (1997). 119
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Göttinger Beiträge zur Ethnologie
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Published in 2008 by Universitätsv
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Bibliographische Information der De
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CONTENTS Acknowledgements Prologue
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Contents 5.2 The context of meaning
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Acknowledgements Many other friends
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ABBREVIATIONS ADICI Asociación de
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2 The cultural context of biodivers
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10 The cultural context of biodiver
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3 THE DISCURSIVE CONTEXT - conceptu
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The discursive context paradigms ar
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The discursive context environmenta
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The discursive context of pluralist
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The discursive context mental chang
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The discursive context and the ›s
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The discursive context More critica
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The discursive context 3.1.3 Concep
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The discursive context ristic power
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The discursive context Given the hi
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The discursive context frame that g
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The discursive context agencies eng
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The discursive context In the end,
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The discursive context entific cred
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The discursive context in a protect
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The discursive context Wells and Br
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Page 125 and 126: 4 THE LOCAL CONTEXT - national poli
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250 The cultural context of biodive
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252 The cultural context of biodive
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EPILOGUE At the end of my last stay
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REFERENCES
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References Atran, Scott et al. (200
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References Brush, Stephen B. & Dore
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References Dove, Michael (1996). Ce
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References Gari, Josep-Antoni (2000
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References Hajer, Maarten & Frank F
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References Kockelman, Paul (2003).
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References Messer, Ellen (2001). Th
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References Oviedo, Gonzalo/Luisa Ma
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References Redford, Kent/Katrina Br
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References — (2002a). Participant
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References UNEP-WCMC (2003). Tradit
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APPENDIX
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Appendix Map 4.3 Alta Verapaz and m
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Göttinger Studien zur Ethnologie h
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