Elephants Elephants - Wildpro - Twycross Zoo

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112 than 20mls should be injected at any one site to avoid swelling and inflammation. Abscesses form readily in elephants and it is essential that the skin is cleaned thoroughly with disinfectant before an injection is made. Injections in hind legs require 6-9cm needles. Intravenous injections are generally made into the veins on the posterior aspect of the ear, but leg veins can be used in some animals. Perivascular injection should be avoided as it may lead to local necrosis & sloughing particularly when using flunixin meglumine (Finadyne). For large volumes of intravenously administered drugs, an intravenous cannula is advised. <strong>Elephants</strong> should be restrained when being injected and the veterinarian MUST always bear in mind safety considerations should the animal object. It is highly questionable whether adequate absorption occurs from the subcutaneous space in elephants and generally this route should be avoided. However, it is possible that some drugs could be administered per rectum. One report describes the pharmacokinetics of rectally administered metronidazole (Gulland and Carwardine 1987). In very general terms, antibiotics and other drugs are given at same dose rates as for horses and cattle (Schmidt 1986) unless specific pharmacokinetic data is available for the elephant. Such data is unavailable for the majority of drugs. A table of known effective dose rates for some antibiotics is given below. Olsen (1999) gives details of weight estimation and dosage calculations. Drug Dose Route Frequency Comments Amoxycillin 11mg/kg IM 1 x daily (Olsen 1999) Ampicillin 8mg/kg PO 2-3 x daily (Olsen 1999) Enrofloxacin 2.5mg/kg PO 1 x daily (Olsen 1999) Enrofloxacin 1.25mg/kg PO 2 x daily (Olsen 1999) Gentamycin 4.4mg/kg IM/ IV 1 x daily (Olsen 1999) Isoniazid 5mg/kg PO 1 x daily (Mikota et al 2001) Metronidazole 15mg/kg PR 1 x daily Give iron supplement Pyrazinamide 25-35 mg/kg PO 1 x daily (Mikota et al 2001)1 Rifampicin 7.5-10 mg/kg PO 1 x daily (Mikota et al 2001) Tetracycline 20mg/kg IM Every 48hrs (Olsen 1999) Trimethaprimsulphamethoxazole 22mg/kg PO 2 x daily (Olsen 1999) Tylosin 12mg/kg IM 1 x daily (Schmidt 1986) Anaesthesia and Sedation This section provides general information on the topic. It is not intended to be a comprehensive guide and for more detailed information reference should be made to the veterinary texts listed in the reference list e.g. (Fowler et al 2000) (Fowler and Miller 1998). Sedatives include:
• Alpha-2-agonists � Xylazine is a sedative, analgesic & muscle relaxant but it causes first-degree heart block, so should not be used in cardiac cases. • Azaperone. • Phenothiazine tranquillisers: these have no analgesic effect. Anaesthetics include: • Etorphine – which is best for general anaesthesia. • Ketamine/xylazine. • Gas GA – isoflurane, halothane. General considerations for all sedations: • Maintain the ability to chain if this is required • It is helpful if the animal has been trained to lie down. • It is best to arrange the position as the animal is going down as repositioning afterwards can be very difficult. • It is important to be able to supplement with oxygen. • <strong>Elephants</strong> are nose-breathers and the trunk MUST be kept clear. • Monitoring is important as with any animal. • Hypostatic congestion caused from lying down on the side for long periods can be ameliorated by atropine. Analgesia: • Phenylbutazone, • NSAIDs including flunixin, ketoprofen, aspirin or ibuprofen. Not meclofenamic acid (Arquel). Common Procedures Arterial pulse can be appreciated from the auricular arteries on the posterior surface of the ear or the facial artery as it crosses the ventral border of the mandible. Auscultation of the chest is of limited use in anything but the youngest elephants. Blood samples are taken most easily from the veins on the posterior aspect of the ear, the medial saphenous vein or the cephalic vein. Haematology of the elephant is unusual in that the red cells are very large, the platelets numerous and monocytes with bilobed or even trilobed nuclei known as ‘elephant cells’ are present in large numbers. (These cells have also been classified by some as lymphocytes). For a detailed description of the haematological and serum biochemical parameters of the elephant, see (Brown and White 1980) (Mikota et al 1994 Chapter 7) and also ISIS haematological and serum biochemical parameters can be referred to. Dental examination of tusks and molars should be carried out at regular intervals. Examination of the molars requires that the elephant be trained to open its mouth and relax the cheek muscles. 113
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Managment Guidelines for the Welfar
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MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE WELFA
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Table of Contents Management Guidel
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SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Pur
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5. Elephants are large and intellig
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Section 2: BIOLOGY AND FIELD DATA A
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The woolly mammoth (M. primigenius)
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jaw but no more than two teeth are
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Features of the elephant’s reprod
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Fig. 2. Map showing current and for
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Table IV. AFRICAN ELEPHANT NUMBERS
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populations using this method; the
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obtained from the wildlife resource
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and bots. For a comprehensive list
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condition and increase the likeliho
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animals in Sri Lanka as well as dir
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COMMUNICATION Elephants, being larg
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Section 3: MANAGEMENT IN CAPTIVITY
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to North America in 1796 and the fi
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and a lack of foraging opportunitie
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protected contact until a full revi
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enrichment and access to food (see
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Adequate food storage areas MUST be
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Fig 7a. Example of a good outside a
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Most facilities in the British Isle
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Table V. SUMMARY OF DIET COMPOSITIO
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prevent obesity and associated heal
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than the average zinc content of th
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RECOMMENDATIONS Based on (Ullrey et
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Stereotypies may be a mechanism whe
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� Control/predictability. Ideally
Page 63 and 64: Fig. 8b A waterfall in an enriched
Page 65 and 66: institutions MUST exchange keepers
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Page 69 and 70: eadily available and the results ta
Page 71 and 72: • Ultrasound examination and iden
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Page 75 and 76: 130 kg, the last having a survival
Page 77 and 78: The goal should be to give cows exp
Page 79 and 80: i r t h s 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Fig. 1
Page 81 and 82: Mason report are never used. Method
Page 83 and 84: incidents as appropriate. To facili
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Page 87 and 88: process. More than one handler may
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Page 91 and 92: c MANAGEMENT d Fig. 11. Elephants i
Page 93 and 94: or operant conditioning. Only posit
Page 95 and 96: • In FC positive and negative rei
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Page 99 and 100: Training captive born elephants Whe
Page 101 and 102: processed, written out and implemen
Page 103 and 104: There are some acceptable justifica
Page 105 and 106: 3.12 Standard Operating Procedure:
Page 107 and 108: Fig. 13. Three sizes of ankus, show
Page 109 and 110: Storage: when not carried by an aut
Page 111 and 112: • Current equipment should be ass
Page 113: Firearms When elephants are being m
Page 117 and 118: Pre-shipment Screening Prior to tra
Page 119 and 120: observation for an hour after vacci
Page 121 and 122: Clostridial enterotoxaemia, see und
Page 123 and 124: measure of improvement in early cas
Page 125 and 126: metritis have all been described (M
Page 127 and 128: Fractures and longitudinal splits.
Page 129 and 130: management in zoos, their conservat
Page 131 and 132: After 1 the publication of the firs
Page 133 and 134: Some of the more unfortunate events
Page 135 and 136: � Is a further SOP required? �
Page 137 and 138: Broughton of HSE and Robert Landrid
Page 139 and 140: Barina, A., Reidl, M., Schmid, L.,
Page 141 and 142: Carlstead, K. & Kleiman, D. 1998. B
Page 143 and 144: Dineley, J. 1984. Operant condition
Page 145 and 146: Fraser, D., Phillips, P.A. & Thomps
Page 147 and 148: Hildebrandt, T., Göritz, F., Schno
Page 149 and 150: Khyne U Mar 2001. The studbook of t
Page 151 and 152: Leong, K.M., Burks, K., Rizkalla, C
Page 153 and 154: Moss, C. & Poole, J.H. 1983. Relati
Page 155 and 156: Olson, D. & Wiese, R.J. 2000. State
Page 157 and 158: Rasmussen, L.E. & Schulte, B.A. 199
Page 159 and 160: Schmid, J. 1995. Keeping circus ele
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Section 6: Appendices 6.1 Appendix
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Trunk (up) - curl trunk up to touch
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6.1.2 Appendix 1.1: Calf Training 1
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this time be used to the sight and
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These commands allow routine good h
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6.2 Appendix 2: Correct Application
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6.3 Appendix 3: Risk Assessments 1
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6.4 Appendix 4: Elephant Profiles 6
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6.5 Appendix 5: Staff training 1 A
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March 2003 Example from Woburn Safa
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(a.) Please indicate (tick) the typ
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6.6.2 Table of results of nutrition
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6.6.3 Table List of plant species u
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Vitamin E conversion factors Vitami
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Table 2. Doses for individual suppl
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uilding a new enclosure that will b
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exception of one female Asian that
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non-Fed members) that do not operat
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4 3 2 1 0 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
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Three calves out of 17 live births
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Females - Only one collection that
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ELEPHANT TAG SURVEY (Please continu
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23 Are enrichments assessed in any
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etc? 8 How often has general anaest
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FEMALE ELEPHANT Please photocopy as
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213
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ody weight of dams, the age at whic
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Intra-specific aggression: incidenc
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