Elephants Elephants - Wildpro - Twycross Zoo

More documents

Recommendations

Info

50 <strong>Elephants</strong> MUST be provided with appropriate browse. Fibre The feeding of a diet with adequate fibre is essential for elephants to maintain normal digestive function and to avoid colic. The elephant’s digestive tract and teeth are adapted to a fibrous diet. Hay is the main source of fibre in elephant diets, however the fibre content varies enormously depending on the species, growing conditions and time of harvest of the grass. No analysis of hay fed to elephants was provided from any of the zoos. In the absence of this data, published values for sun dried British meadow hay (MAFF 1986), were used. Fibre is not a nutrient, hence there are no recommended levels published; all it can do is provide energy, so digestibility needs to be taken into account and all other nutrient concentrations designed relative to energy content. Fibre has been expressed as crude fibre, acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and lignin. ADF represents the cellulose and lignin in the feed – these are both indigestible compounds. ADF is used by nutritionists to predict the energy value of the feed, forage maturity and the ability of a diet to maintain normal rumen function. NDF includes cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose and effectively represents the total fibre components of the diet. The ADF and NDF values provide information for estimating digestibility and maximum animal intake of fibre in the diet. There are some values available for the fibre content of natural elephant forage ranging from between 13-62% crude fibre, and the results of our analysis fall within this range. It has been suggested that hays with an ADF of over 30% should be fed to elephants to prevent colic, however this can only possibly be determined if zoos analyse the hay they are feeding (Ullrey et al 1997). Protein The recommendation for protein content in elephant diets is 8-10% dry matter (Dierenfeld 1994). Adequate protein is important in elephant diets, with deficiency reported to cause illness and death in young elephants fed a diet containing 5.5% protein (dry matter) (Ange et al 2001) (Ullrey et al 1985). All the diets analysed contained protein levels higher than this recommendation, the mean protein content being 13.6%, thus protein content would therefore seem to be adequate. However, interpretation of these data has to take into account that the hays fed to all the zoo elephants had not been specifically analysed rather values were taken from standard feed tables. As standard tables generally refer to high quality hay and the nutrient value of hay varies according to the species and the stage of maturity at cut (amongst other factors), protein requirements may not be fully met by feeding hay alone without supplementation using a concentrated feed. Pregnant, lactating and growing animals require a higher proportion of protein in their diet. Ullrey et al (1997) suggest 10% for pregnant cows and 14% for late pregnancy and first year of lactation, lowering to 12% for the second year of lactation. Fat The natural diet of elephants is low in fat (1.2-1.8%), (Dierenfeld 1994) (Spencer 1990) and captive elephant diets should be developed to replicate this to
prevent obesity and associated health problems. In particular, care should be taken to consider fat content when choosing concentrated pellets. However, field studies have discovered that some types of browse can at times exceed 5% crude fat, and it is suggested that diets based on desiccated grass and lacking in browse may not contain appropriate fatty acids for optimal elephant health (Dierenfeld 1994). The fatty acid content of browse fed to elephants may play an important role in their health and nutrition. The fatty acid content may differ in fresh and dried browse. This has been shown to be the case in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) diets, where a rhinoceros recently imported into the US and fed dried local browse showed blood abnormalities which were resolved following a correction of the linoleic:linolenic acid ratio in the diet (Suedmeyer and Dierenfeld 1998). This was due to changes in fatty acid ratios and quantities when the plants were dried. The mean crude fat content of the diets analysed in this study was 0.7%. A crude fat value can be of limited use in analysing the quality of elephant diets since it contains all pigments, waxes and resins in the feeds which do not contribute to the energy provided by the diet. None of the diets contained excessive (>1.8%) amounts of crude fat. Vitamins and Minerals The elephant’s requirements for vitamins and minerals have not been extensively studied, and values recommended for horses are therefore generally used as a guide. One exception where physiology and metabolism are recognised to differ between elephant and horse, is for the fat-soluble vitamin E; more detailed discussion is provided below. Analysis of the diets using <strong>Zoo</strong>trition has provided figures for consideration. To obtain an accurate figure for vitamin and mineral content in the diets fed, a complete analysis of vitamin and mineral content of all the feeds offered would have been necessary. Since there was no analysis of the hays fed, and in many cases fruit and vegetables were offered, which may have contained varying levels of nutrients depending on freshness or variety, the dataset remains incomplete. However, the forage data allows for a preliminary evaluation. Calcium and Phosphorus Calcium and phosphorus values for wild elephant diets of grass and browse were recorded as 0.35-2.47% and 0.09-0.33% respectively (Ullrey et al 1997). NRC recommendations for these minerals in horses are 0.24% calcium and 0.17% phosphorus, however a 1:1 to 2:1 ratio of Ca:P is aimed for in the complete diet (National Research Council 1989). Dietary calcium is important for maintenance of bone strength and tusk growth. Daily calcium requirements for tusk growth and lactation have been determined as 60g calcium per day in the diet (Dierenfeld 1994). The average calcium content of the zoo diets analysed was 204g, more than three times this recommended amount. It is believed that, in horses, calcium absorption efficiency decreases with age and for the purposes of calculating an animal’s requirements it is estimated that only 50% of the calcium ingested is actually absorbed (National Research Council 1989). The lowest amount of calcium in the zoo diets analysed was 110g and so, even at a 50% absorption efficiency, 51
Page 1 and 2: Managment Guidelines for the Welfar
Page 3 and 4: MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE WELFA
Page 5 and 6: Table of Contents Management Guidel
Page 7 and 8: SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Pur
Page 9 and 10: 5. Elephants are large and intellig
Page 11 and 12: Section 2: BIOLOGY AND FIELD DATA A
Page 13 and 14: The woolly mammoth (M. primigenius)
Page 15 and 16: jaw but no more than two teeth are
Page 17 and 18: Features of the elephant’s reprod
Page 19 and 20: Fig. 2. Map showing current and for
Page 21 and 22: Table IV. AFRICAN ELEPHANT NUMBERS
Page 23 and 24: populations using this method; the
Page 25 and 26: obtained from the wildlife resource
Page 27 and 28: and bots. For a comprehensive list
Page 29 and 30: condition and increase the likeliho
Page 31 and 32: animals in Sri Lanka as well as dir
Page 33 and 34: COMMUNICATION Elephants, being larg
Page 35 and 36: Section 3: MANAGEMENT IN CAPTIVITY
Page 37 and 38: to North America in 1796 and the fi
Page 39 and 40: and a lack of foraging opportunitie
Page 41 and 42: protected contact until a full revi
Page 43 and 44: enrichment and access to food (see
Page 45 and 46: Adequate food storage areas MUST be
Page 47 and 48: Fig 7a. Example of a good outside a
Page 49 and 50: Most facilities in the British Isle
Page 51: Table V. SUMMARY OF DIET COMPOSITIO
Page 55 and 56: than the average zinc content of th
Page 57 and 58: RECOMMENDATIONS Based on (Ullrey et
Page 59 and 60: Stereotypies may be a mechanism whe
Page 61 and 62: � Control/predictability. Ideally
Page 63 and 64: Fig. 8b A waterfall in an enriched
Page 65 and 66: institutions MUST exchange keepers
Page 67 and 68: Reproductive Biology Department at
Page 69 and 70: eadily available and the results ta
Page 71 and 72: • Ultrasound examination and iden
Page 73 and 74: within an individual, thus a partic
Page 75 and 76: 130 kg, the last having a survival
Page 77 and 78: The goal should be to give cows exp
Page 79 and 80: i r t h s 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Fig. 1
Page 81 and 82: Mason report are never used. Method
Page 83 and 84: incidents as appropriate. To facili
Page 85 and 86: einforcer. Classical conditioning t
Page 87 and 88: process. More than one handler may
Page 89 and 90: 1 Must added • An opportunity to
Page 91 and 92: c MANAGEMENT d Fig. 11. Elephants i
Page 93 and 94: or operant conditioning. Only posit
Page 95 and 96: • In FC positive and negative rei
Page 97 and 98: the ERD, it should be used daily an
Page 99 and 100: Training captive born elephants Whe
Page 101 and 102: processed, written out and implemen
Page 103 and 104:
There are some acceptable justifica
Page 105 and 106:
3.12 Standard Operating Procedure:
Page 107 and 108:
Fig. 13. Three sizes of ankus, show
Page 109 and 110:
Storage: when not carried by an aut
Page 111 and 112:
• Current equipment should be ass
Page 113 and 114:
Firearms When elephants are being m
Page 115 and 116:
• Alpha-2-agonists � Xylazine i
Page 117 and 118:
Pre-shipment Screening Prior to tra
Page 119 and 120:
observation for an hour after vacci
Page 121 and 122:
Clostridial enterotoxaemia, see und
Page 123 and 124:
measure of improvement in early cas
Page 125 and 126:
metritis have all been described (M
Page 127 and 128:
Fractures and longitudinal splits.
Page 129 and 130:
management in zoos, their conservat
Page 131 and 132:
After 1 the publication of the firs
Page 133 and 134:
Some of the more unfortunate events
Page 135 and 136:
� Is a further SOP required? �
Page 137 and 138:
Broughton of HSE and Robert Landrid
Page 139 and 140:
Barina, A., Reidl, M., Schmid, L.,
Page 141 and 142:
Carlstead, K. & Kleiman, D. 1998. B
Page 143 and 144:
Dineley, J. 1984. Operant condition
Page 145 and 146:
Fraser, D., Phillips, P.A. & Thomps
Page 147 and 148:
Hildebrandt, T., Göritz, F., Schno
Page 149 and 150:
Khyne U Mar 2001. The studbook of t
Page 151 and 152:
Leong, K.M., Burks, K., Rizkalla, C
Page 153 and 154:
Moss, C. & Poole, J.H. 1983. Relati
Page 155 and 156:
Olson, D. & Wiese, R.J. 2000. State
Page 157 and 158:
Rasmussen, L.E. & Schulte, B.A. 199
Page 159 and 160:
Schmid, J. 1995. Keeping circus ele
Page 161 and 162:
Stewart, D.R., Stabenfeldt, G.H. &
Page 163 and 164:
Wallace, C., Ingram, K. & Dierenfel
Page 165 and 166:
Section 6: Appendices 6.1 Appendix
Page 167 and 168:
Trunk (up) - curl trunk up to touch
Page 169 and 170:
6.1.2 Appendix 1.1: Calf Training 1
Page 171 and 172:
this time be used to the sight and
Page 173 and 174:
These commands allow routine good h
Page 175 and 176:
6.2 Appendix 2: Correct Application
Page 177 and 178:
6.3 Appendix 3: Risk Assessments 1
Page 179 and 180:
6.4 Appendix 4: Elephant Profiles 6
Page 181 and 182:
6.5 Appendix 5: Staff training 1 A
Page 183 and 184:
March 2003 Example from Woburn Safa
Page 185 and 186:
(a.) Please indicate (tick) the typ
Page 187 and 188:
6.6.2 Table of results of nutrition
Page 189 and 190:
6.6.3 Table List of plant species u
Page 191 and 192:
Vitamin E conversion factors Vitami
Page 193 and 194:
Table 2. Doses for individual suppl
Page 195 and 196:
uilding a new enclosure that will b
Page 197 and 198:
exception of one female Asian that
Page 199 and 200:
non-Fed members) that do not operat
Page 201 and 202:
4 3 2 1 0 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
Page 203 and 204:
Three calves out of 17 live births
Page 205 and 206:
Females - Only one collection that
Page 207 and 208:
ELEPHANT TAG SURVEY (Please continu
Page 209 and 210:
23 Are enrichments assessed in any
Page 211 and 212:
etc? 8 How often has general anaest
Page 213 and 214:
FEMALE ELEPHANT Please photocopy as
Page 215 and 216:
213
Page 217 and 218:
ody weight of dams, the age at whic
Page 219:
Intra-specific aggression: incidenc
show all

Elephants Elephants - Wildpro - Twycross Zoo

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?