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10 (Eisenberg 1981); E. m. maximus, E. m. indicus, the continental form and E. m. sumatranus of Sumatra (Santiapillai and Jackson 1990) (Eisenberg 1981). However recent sequencing work using mitochondrial DNA (Fleischer et al 2001) suggests that there are two clades, A and B, with clade A originating in Indonesia and Malaysia, suggesting that these are an ESU (evolutionary significant unit). Clade A has been distributed by the human trade in elephants among Myanmar, India and Sri Lanka, resulting in mixes of Clad A in with B. This work does not support an ESU status for Sri Lankan elephants. However the Sumatran subspecies is diagnosable and it is suggested that they be managed as a separate unit. E. m. sumatranus also has physical differences. They tend to be paler and smaller, with larger ears and one extra pair of ribs (20) (Shoshani 1991a). More recently there is a suggestion that the Bornean elephant may also be significantly different from mainland forms (Sukumar 2003) 1 PHYLOGENY The order contains one living family, Elephantidae, with two living genera. <strong>Elephants</strong> are members of the broad evolutionary line leading to ungulates or hoofed mammals. Early proto-ungulates showed extensive radiation in the Eocene. These fossils show development towards the ungulate condition but the limbs remained primitive and the nails had not evolved in to proper hooves. These lines died out leaving the remnants of three: the sirenians (sea cows), hyraxes and elephants. Numerous primitive features shared by these groups show their common ancestry (Eltringham 1982). There are various classifications of extinct proboscids, (Eltringham 1982) (Carrington 1962) (Nowak 1991) (Shoshani 1991b); this section is intended simply as a guide to the radiation which resulted in the extant elephants. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTANT FORMS The earliest definite proboscidean genus Moeritherium of the Gomphotheriidae arose in Africa in the late Eocene. Moeritherium was about the size of a large pig. It survived into the lower Oligocene. From this evolved the three families: Elephantidae (living) and extinct Mastodontidae and Stegodontidae. The first known members of the Elephantidae are from late Miocene or early Pliocene deposits in Africa. Table I. shows the distribution of proboscids from Eocene to Recent. Whereas Loxodonta was confined to Africa, species of Elephas ranged over Africa, Europe and Asia but became restricted to Asia by the late Pleistocene. Three species of Loxodonta and eleven of Elephas have been recognised (Eltringham 1982). Remains of a pygmy species of Elephas have been found on some Mediterranean islands; E. maximus is thought to have evolved some 0.2 million years ago. The mammoths of the genus Mammuthus originated in Africa, probably from the Loxodonta lineage, but passed into North America along the land bridge, splitting into two branches, one mainly European and the other American. 1 Taxonomic notes updated and referenced
The woolly mammoth (M. primigenius) is thought to have become extinct some 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. Table I. EVOLUTION OF THE PROBOSCIDS ERA PERIOD MAJOR DIVISION ELEPHANT EVOLUTION CAINOZOIC QUATERNARY TERTIARY HOLOCENE (recent) 10,000 yrs since start PLEISTOCENE 1 mill. yrs. since start PLIOCENE 13 mill. yrs. since start MIOCENE 27 mill. yrs. since start OLIGOCENE 37 mill. yrs. since start EOCENE 52 mill. yrs. since start Elephas Loxodonta Mammuthus (?) Elephantids (Eur, As, N.A.) Mastodontids (N.A.) Dinotheres (Eur, As, Af) Stegodontids (Eur, As) Elephantidae arose. Primelephas (most primitive from which others may have evolved), Loxodonta, Elephas and Mammuthus. Dinotheres (Eur, As, Af) Mastodontids (Eur, As, N.A) Stegodontids (As) Dinotheres (Eur, As,Af), Mastodontids (Eur, As, Af, N.A.) Stegodontids (As) Moeritherium , Phiomia , Palaeomastodon Mastodontids Earliest proboscidean genus Moeritherium (Gomphotheriidae) in Egypt 11
Page 1 and 2: Managment Guidelines for the Welfar
Page 3 and 4: MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE WELFA
Page 5 and 6: Table of Contents Management Guidel
Page 7 and 8: SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Pur
Page 9 and 10: 5. Elephants are large and intellig
Page 11: Section 2: BIOLOGY AND FIELD DATA A
Page 15 and 16: jaw but no more than two teeth are
Page 17 and 18: Features of the elephant’s reprod
Page 19 and 20: Fig. 2. Map showing current and for
Page 21 and 22: Table IV. AFRICAN ELEPHANT NUMBERS
Page 23 and 24: populations using this method; the
Page 25 and 26: obtained from the wildlife resource
Page 27 and 28: and bots. For a comprehensive list
Page 29 and 30: condition and increase the likeliho
Page 31 and 32: animals in Sri Lanka as well as dir
Page 33 and 34: COMMUNICATION Elephants, being larg
Page 35 and 36: Section 3: MANAGEMENT IN CAPTIVITY
Page 37 and 38: to North America in 1796 and the fi
Page 39 and 40: and a lack of foraging opportunitie
Page 41 and 42: protected contact until a full revi
Page 43 and 44: enrichment and access to food (see
Page 45 and 46: Adequate food storage areas MUST be
Page 47 and 48: Fig 7a. Example of a good outside a
Page 49 and 50: Most facilities in the British Isle
Page 51 and 52: Table V. SUMMARY OF DIET COMPOSITIO
Page 53 and 54: prevent obesity and associated heal
Page 55 and 56: than the average zinc content of th
Page 57 and 58: RECOMMENDATIONS Based on (Ullrey et
Page 59 and 60: Stereotypies may be a mechanism whe
Page 61 and 62: � Control/predictability. Ideally
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Fig. 8b A waterfall in an enriched
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institutions MUST exchange keepers
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Reproductive Biology Department at
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eadily available and the results ta
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• Ultrasound examination and iden
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within an individual, thus a partic
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130 kg, the last having a survival
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The goal should be to give cows exp
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i r t h s 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Fig. 1
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Mason report are never used. Method
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incidents as appropriate. To facili
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einforcer. Classical conditioning t
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process. More than one handler may
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1 Must added • An opportunity to
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c MANAGEMENT d Fig. 11. Elephants i
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or operant conditioning. Only posit
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• In FC positive and negative rei
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the ERD, it should be used daily an
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Training captive born elephants Whe
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processed, written out and implemen
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There are some acceptable justifica
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3.12 Standard Operating Procedure:
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Fig. 13. Three sizes of ankus, show
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Storage: when not carried by an aut
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• Current equipment should be ass
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Firearms When elephants are being m
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• Alpha-2-agonists � Xylazine i
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Pre-shipment Screening Prior to tra
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observation for an hour after vacci
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Clostridial enterotoxaemia, see und
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measure of improvement in early cas
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metritis have all been described (M
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Fractures and longitudinal splits.
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management in zoos, their conservat
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After 1 the publication of the firs
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Some of the more unfortunate events
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� Is a further SOP required? �
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Broughton of HSE and Robert Landrid
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Barina, A., Reidl, M., Schmid, L.,
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Carlstead, K. & Kleiman, D. 1998. B
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Dineley, J. 1984. Operant condition
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Fraser, D., Phillips, P.A. & Thomps
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Hildebrandt, T., Göritz, F., Schno
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Khyne U Mar 2001. The studbook of t
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Leong, K.M., Burks, K., Rizkalla, C
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Moss, C. & Poole, J.H. 1983. Relati
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Olson, D. & Wiese, R.J. 2000. State
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Rasmussen, L.E. & Schulte, B.A. 199
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Schmid, J. 1995. Keeping circus ele
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Stewart, D.R., Stabenfeldt, G.H. &
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Wallace, C., Ingram, K. & Dierenfel
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Section 6: Appendices 6.1 Appendix
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Trunk (up) - curl trunk up to touch
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6.1.2 Appendix 1.1: Calf Training 1
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this time be used to the sight and
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These commands allow routine good h
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6.2 Appendix 2: Correct Application
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6.3 Appendix 3: Risk Assessments 1
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6.4 Appendix 4: Elephant Profiles 6
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6.5 Appendix 5: Staff training 1 A
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March 2003 Example from Woburn Safa
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(a.) Please indicate (tick) the typ
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6.6.2 Table of results of nutrition
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6.6.3 Table List of plant species u
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Vitamin E conversion factors Vitami
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Table 2. Doses for individual suppl
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uilding a new enclosure that will b
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exception of one female Asian that
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non-Fed members) that do not operat
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4 3 2 1 0 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
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Three calves out of 17 live births
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Females - Only one collection that
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ELEPHANT TAG SURVEY (Please continu
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23 Are enrichments assessed in any
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etc? 8 How often has general anaest
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FEMALE ELEPHANT Please photocopy as
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213
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ody weight of dams, the age at whic
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Intra-specific aggression: incidenc
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