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LEARNING AND EDUCATION 533
as between Dominicans and Franciscans, and between the
mendicants of all four orders and the secular clergy. Differ-
ences of approach to abstruse problems common to philosophers
and theologians such as the principle ofindividuation
and the unity ofform tended to divide Dominicans and Fran-'
ciscans into two schools of thought. Aristotle continued to
prove a stumbling-block to many mendicant and secular
theologians; consequently the Aristotelian complexion of the
thought of St. Thomas Aquinas provoked condemnations at
Paris in 1277. These were followed by no less severe condem-
nations at Oxford promulgated by Archbishop Kilwardby
(d. 1279), himself a Dominican, and renewed by his Fran
ciscan successor, Archbishop Pecham (d. 1292) in 1284. But
Thomism found bold supporters among Oxford Dominicans.
Oxford, too, was one of the main battle grounds ofthe realist
disciples of John Duns, the first great Scottish philosopher and
theologian. Duns Scotus, doctor subtilis, was followed by an
other great Franciscan leader of thought, William ofOckham,
doctor invindUlis.
In the fourteenth century, the secular masters, most of
them fellows of Merton College, became prominent. In the
main, their great contribution was made in the study of logic
(sultilitates anglicanae) and philosophy: but the most famous of
the Merton scholars was Thomas Bradwardine, the greatest
English secular theologian since Grosseteste. The same period
is notable for the new interest shown, outside the religious
orders, in the collection of books. Richard Bury (d. 1345),
bishop of Durham, whose love of books is commemorated in
his PMoUUon 9 intended that his fine library should have a
home in Oxford, but, owing to his debts, his executors had to
Thomas Cob-
dispose of it. The university was furnished by
ham (d. 1327), bishop of Worcester, with its first library-
building; Merton College by William Rede (d. 1385), bishop
of Chichester, with a building even more spacious and with
books.
The Black Death carried off Bradwardine within a few
weeks ofhis promotion to the see of Canterbury. This scourge