THE STORY OF PHILOSOPHY2 The Lives and Opinions

ARISTOTLE 49
own day, and make all medieval Europe ring with, the clash of "realists"
and "nominalists." 18 A universal, to Aristotle, is any common noun, any
name capable of universal application to the members of a class: so
animal, man, book, tree, are universals. But these universals are subjective
notions, not tangibly objective realities; they are nomina (names), not res
(things) ; all that exists outside us is a world of individual and specific
objects, not of generic and universal things; men exist, and trees, and
animals; but man-in-general, or the universal man, does not exist, except
in thought; he is a handy mental abstraction, not an external presence
or reality.
Now Aristotle understands Plato to have held that universals have
objective existence; and indeed Plato had said that the universal is incomparably
more lasting and important and substantial than the individual,
the latter being but a little wavelet in a ceaseless surf; men
come and go, but man goes on forever. Aristotle's is a matter-of-fact
mind; as William James would say, a tough, not a tender, mind; he sees
tibe root of endless mysticism and scholarly nonsense in this Platonic
"realism" ; and he attacks it with all the vigor of a first polemic. As Brutus
loved not Caesar less but Rome more, so Aristotle says, Amicus Plato, sed
magis arnica veritas "Dear is Plato, but dearer still is truth."
A hostile commentator might remark that Aristotle (like Nietzsche)
criticizes Plato so keenly because he is conscious of having borrowed from
him generously; no man is a hero to his debtors. But Aristotle has a
healthy attitude, nevertheless; he is a realist almost in the modern sense;
he is resolved to concern himself with the objective present, while Plato
is absorbed in a subjective future. There was, in the Socratic-Platonic
demand for definitions, a tendency away from things and facts to theories
and ideas, from particulars to generalities, from science to scholasticism;
at last Plato became so devoted to generalities that they began to determine
his particulars, so devoted to ideas that they began to define or
select his facts. Aristotle preaches a return to things, to the "unwithered
face of nature" and reality; he had a lusty preference for the concrete
particular,
for the flesh and blood individual. But Plato so loved the
general and universal that in the Republic he destroyed the individual
to make a perfect state.
warrior takes over
Yet, as is the usual humor of history, the young
many of the qualities of the old master whom he assails. We have always
goodly stock in us of that which we condemn: as only similars can be
profitably contrasted, so only similar people quarrel, and the bitterest
wars are over the slightest variations of purpose or belief. The knightly
Crusaders found in Saladin a gentleman with whom they could quarrel
amicably; but when the Christians of Europe broke into hostile camps
MIt was in reference to this debate that Friedrich Schlegel said, "Every man is
born either a Platonist or an Aristotelian" (in Benn, i, 291).