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336 MARINE AND COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS adequate feeding, roosting and nesting habitat for adult birds but it was not appreciated that Scarlet Ibis have a further habitat requirement and that is for freshwater prey to feed the nestlings during the breeding season (Bildstein, 1990). All habitat requirements must be fully understood before the required protected area for a target species can be designated. The loss of freshwater marshes on the eastern, landward, side of Caroni had important implications for target species management. In addition, marsh loss had reduced the wetland’s floral and avifaunal diversity considerably; while the corresponding reduction in habitat diversity had reduced the variety in the tourist experience. Marsh loss had resulted from catchment river modifications, including reservoir construction, embanking of feeder rivers and diversion of wet season flooding (Gerald, 1986). None of this had been factored into the ecological requirements for freshwater in Caroni Swamp. The most important lesson learned here was the rather obvious one, that an MPA cannot be managed in isolation from its landscape unit—in this case the Caroni river basin. It had proven impossible to maintain the ecological character of the site, when external forcing functions had not been controlled or come under the influence of the park managers. A second problem was that caused by attempting to manage the system as if the ecological character determined in the 1960’s (Bacon, 1970) was static. There appears to have been no understanding, and no research to gain such understanding, of the natural processes of change in a coastal wetland system. Management objectives and practices remained focused on species protection, while the habitat was changing drastically as a result of hydrologic diversion, channel silting and mangrove succession and spreading. Considering the current scenario of sea level rise, considerable ecological change can be expected in the future so coastal protected area management must be responsive to likely changes. Short-term change in mangrove systems is poorly documented or understood—there are few case studies available for the Caribbean Region. However, it is clear that any management system for MPAs must be resilient to ecological change. A third problem is related to the lack of controls over resource users and the accompanying lack of cooperation by these stakeholders. The objectives of MPA management in Caroni Swamp were species focused and gave little attention to traditionally dependent human communities. The inadequate provision by the regulatory agencies for wardens, policing and control, coupled with resource user indiscipline and the widespread dislike of government controls led to an unpleasant conflict situation that hampered effective management. Management failure was closely related to the absence of planning for stakeholder involvement, particularly when it was obvious that the regulatory authorities were unable to mount an effective conservation programme. The focus on a bird species, rather than the benefits that conservation of the entire swamp could bring to local
PART III Case Histories of Marine Protected Areas communities hindered the Wildlife Section’s work. A much-needed area of research and the production of management guidelines relates to demonstrating how resource use and economic gain can be maximized, while protecting important ecological values. Source: Peter R. Bacon, Department of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, Trinidad E-mail contact: pbacon99@hotmail.com References Bacon, P.R. 1970. The Ecology of Caroni Swamp, Trinidad. Central Statistical Office, Port of Spain, Trinidad; 68 pages. Bacon, P.R. & ffrench, R.P. 1972. The Wildlife Sanctuaries of Trinidad and Tobago. Wildlife Conservation Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, Lands & Fisheries, Bildstein, K.L. 1990. Status, conservation and management of the Scarlet Ibis, Eudocimus ruber, in the Caroni Swamp, Trinidad. Biological Conservation, 54; 61-78. Gerald, L. 1986. The changing Caroni Swamp 1922—1985. Naturalist (Trinidad & Tobago); 14-17. 337
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Marine and Coastal Protected Areas
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The designation of geographical ent
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viii MARINE AND COASTAL PROTECTED A
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x MARINE AND COASTAL PROTECTED AREA
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Acknowledgements This book largely
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Table of contents Part I Creating M
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Table of Contents 4.6 Economic Crit
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Table of Contents Review of Highlig
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10 MARINE AND COASTAL PROTECTED ARE
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The Roles of Protected Areas Marine
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PART I The Roles of Protected Areas
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Box I-1. Ecosystem Conservation: La
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harvest of edible resources (e.g.,
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Photo by R. Salm. PART I The Roles
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Selection of Marine Protected Areas
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PART I Selection of Marine Protecte
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Table I-3. Model Habitat/Ecosystem
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4.5 Social Criteria Social and cult
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4.6 Economic Criteria Economic bene
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Institutional and Legal Framework M
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6.2 Diagnosis PART I Institutional
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Box I-16. Historical Rights PART I
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PART I Institutional and Legal Fram
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Box I-17. Funding MPAs through “B
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Protected Areas for Coral Reefs Cor
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PART II Protected Areas for Coral R
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FIGURE II-4. PART II Protected Area
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into the sea (Salm, 1981a). After t
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1.4 Global Status of Coral Reef Pro
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Table II-4: Diversity of Corals on
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Mangroves, lagoons, Introduce disso
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Protected Areas for Lagoons and Est
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PART II Protected Areas for Lagoons
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Wetlands provide opportunities for
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Pollution can be very serious, caus
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2.8 General Information Needs PART
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- Management plans for lagoons/estu
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Review of Highlights of the Case Hi
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PART III Case Histories of Marine P
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Box III-1. The Relationship between
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Negative lessons learned: High comm
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Background PART III Case Histories
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A guide for planners and managers - IUCN

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