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6. Widdel, F. et al. Ferrous iron oxidation by anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria. Nature 362, 834-836 (1993). 7. Konhauser, K.O. et al. Could bacteria have formed the Precambrian banded iron formations? Geology 30, 1079-1082 (2002). 8. Kappler, A., Pasquero, C., Konhauser, K.O., & Newman, D.K. Deposition of banded iron formations by anoxygenic phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria. Geology 33, 865-868 (2005). 9. Klein, C. Some Precambrian banded iron-formations (BIFs) from around the world: Their age, geologic setting, mineralogy, metamorphism, geochemistry, and origin. Amer. Mineral. 90, 1473-1499 (2005). 10. Beukes, N.J. & Cairncross, B. A lithostratigraphic-sedimentological reference profile for the late Archaean Mozaan Group, Pongola Sequence; application to sequence stratigraphy and correlation with the Witwatersrand Supergroup. S. Afr. J. Geol. 94, 44-69 (1991) 11. Nhleko, N. The Pongola Supergroup in Swaziland, Ph.D. thesis, Rand Afrikaans Univ. (2003). 12. Alexander, B.W., Bau, M., Andersson, P., & Dulski, P. Continentally-derived solutes in shallow Archean seawater: Rare earth element and Nd isotope evidence in iron formation from the 2.9 Ga Pongola Supergroup, South Africa. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 378-394 (2008). 13. Wronkiewicz, D.J. & Condie, K.C. Geochemistry and provenance of sediments from the Pongola Supergroup, South Africa: Evidence for a 3.0-Ga-old continental craton Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53, 1537-1549 (1989). 14. McLennan, S. M., Taylor, S. R. & Kröner, A. Geochemical evolution of Archean shales from South Africa. I. The Swaziland and Pongola Supergroups. Precam. Res. 22, 93- 124 (1983). 15. Jahn, B. & Condie, K.C. Evolution of the Kaapvaal Craton as viewed from geochemical and Sm-Nd isotopic analyses of intracratonic pelites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 59, 2239-2258 (1995). 162
16. Watanabe Y., Naraoka, H., Wronkiewicz, D.J., Condie, K.C., & Ohmoto, H. Carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur geochemistry of Archean and Proterozoic shales from the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61, 3441-3459 (1997). 17. Fedo, C.M., Eriksson, K.A., & Krogstad, E.J. Geochemistry of shales from the Archean (~3.0 Ga) Buhwa Greenstone Belt, Zimbabwe: Implications for provenance and source-area weathering. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 60, 1751-1763 (1996). 18. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., & Zussman, J. An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals. (Longman Sci. & Tech., Essex, 1992). 19. Comans, R.N.J. et al. Mobilization of radiocaesium in pore water of lake sediments. Nature 339, 367-369 (1989). 20. James, R.H. & Palmer, M.R. Marine geochemical cycles of the alkali elements and boron: The role of sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 3111-3122 (2000). 21. Chapman, H. D. in Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 (ed. Black, C.A.) 891-901 (Am. Inst. Agron., Madison, Wisconsin, 1965). 22. Hendershot, W.H. & Duquette, M. A simple barium chloride method for determining cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cations. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 50, 605-608 (1986). 23. Kamei, G., Oda, C., Mitsui, S., Shibata, M., & Shinozaki, T. Fe(II )-Na ion exchange at interlayers of smectite: adsorption-desorption experiments and a natural analogue. Eng. Geol. 54, 15-20 (1999). 24. Charlet, L. & Tournassat, C. Fe(II)–Na(I)–Ca(II) cation exchange on montmorillonite in chloride medium: evidence for preferential clay adsorption of chloride–metal ion pairs in seawater. Aqua. Geochem. 11, 115-137 (2005). 25. Rosing, M.T. & Frei, R. U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments from Greenland - indications of >3700 Ma oxygenic photosynthesis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 217, 237- 244 (2004). 26. Konhauser, K.O. et al. Decoupling photochemical Fe(II) oxidation from shallow-water IF deposition. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 258, 87-100 (2007). 27. Canfield, D.E., Rosing, M.T., & Bjerrum, C. Early anaerobic metabolisms. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 361, 1819-1836 (2006). 163
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Iron sedimentation and the neodymiu
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The process(es) by which IFs were d
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This thesis represents original and
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viii
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goal of the research is to discern
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Figure 1. Map of southern Africa sh
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appropriate to briefly discuss: 1)
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100 10 MORB 1 0.1 raw data (mg/kg)
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10 -2 hydrothermal fluid 10 -3 10 -
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seawater and returned to the sedime
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100 MCO + 3 + M(CO 3 )- 2 rare eart
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net effect of carbonate complexatio
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feature was not recognized in early
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sound geochemical basis for anomalo
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deviation of the 143 Nd/ 144 Nd rat
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available, it should be possible to
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modern and Archean oceans, as well
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Bau M., Möller P., and Dulski P. (
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Elderfield H. and Greaves M.J. (198
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Haley B.A., Klinkhammer G.P. (2003)
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Lee J.H. and Byrne R.H. (1993) Comp
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Piepgras D.J. and Wasserburg G.J. (
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Tosiani T., Loubet M., Viers J., Va
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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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Abstract The benefits of inductivel
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List of Figures Figure 1. Sample de
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1. Introduction The advent of induc
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Figure 1. Flow-chart diagram of the
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during decomposition (SiF 4 and CO
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Fractionation between the three iso
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cps, then 3000 cps must be subtract
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variety of ways. These range from r
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Table 3. Change in HFSE concentrati
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0.90, corresponding to an anomalous
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10 2 JDo-1 reference values 10 1 IF
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Figure 5. Diagram depicting various
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20 18 basalt BHVO-2 (n=5) run preci
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The method precision for elements p
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Two approaches may be utilized to d
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For the more recent, full 32 elemen
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isotopic data for geologic CRMs, av
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Table 4. Interferences observed for
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value uncertainty (as %RSD) is repr
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1.50 FeR-4 (n=2) 1.25 JUB / referen
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1 IF-G/shale 0.1 0.01 La Ce Pr Nd P
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consistent (App. 1), and similar to
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1.50 SGR-1b (n=3) 1.25 JUB / refere
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1.50 JCh-1 (n=3) 1.25 JUB / referen
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1.50 JDo-1 (n=5) 1.25 JUB / referen
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determinations in carbonate rocks r
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1.50 JMn-1 (n=4) 1.25 JUB / referen
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eference value. The result is that
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eference value and the measured JUB
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the 32 analyzed elements, with Ti b
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Govindaraju K. (1995) 1995 working
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Appendix 1. Analytical data Appendi
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Appendix 1. Literature reference va
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Appendix 1 continued. Data in mg/kg
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the concentration of the major elem
Page 122 and 123: Potential interferences on monoisot
Page 124 and 125: 1500 0.5 M HCl 4.0 interference on
Page 126 and 127: 4000 0.40 0.20 3500 0.17 mg/kg 0.18
Page 128 and 129: interference on 95 Mo in sample sol
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Page 132 and 133: Nd isotopes in 2.9 Ga Archean surfa
Page 136 and 137: Table 2 Trace element concentration
Page 152 and 153: Author's personal copy B.W. Alexand
Page 166 and 167: and preservation of oxide-facies IF
Page 168 and 169: TOP relative stratigraphic position
Page 170 and 171: The mechanism by which the alkali m
Page 178 and 179: 82 PRESERVATION OF PRIMARY REE PATT
Page 184: ulk, open ocean seawater tended to
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