Preparatory Notes for ASNT NDT Level III Examination - Ultrasonic Testing, UT

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<strong>Ultrasonic</strong> <strong>Testing</strong> - Horizontal Linearity (Calibration) www.youtube.com/embed/NuS6j0SmjKQ
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Preparatory Notes for ASNT NDT Leve
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Numerical Prefix • Micro - (µ) a
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Contents: 1. ASNT Level III Exam To
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4. Interpretation/Evaluations • E
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UT - Ultrasonic Testing Length: 4 h
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3. Techniques/Calibrations •Conta
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ASME V Article Numbers: Gen Article
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Other Reading • http://techcorr.c
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Content: Section 1: Introduction 1.
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Content: Section 3: Equipment & Tra
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Content: Section 4: Calibration Met
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Content: Section 6: Selected Applic
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Section 1: Introduction
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1.1: Basic Principles of Ultrasonic
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In ultrasonic testing, the reflecte
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Basics of Ultrasonic Test- Contact
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Basics of Ultrasonic Test- A-Scan
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Source-2: The advantages of ultraso
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• Operation is electronic, which
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1.3: Limitations (Disadvantages) As
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Content: Section 2: Physics of Ultr
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Ultrasonic Formula
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Parameters of Ultrasonic Waves
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Acoustic Spectrum
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Acoustic Spectrum
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Acoustic Wave - Node and Anti-Node
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Q151 A point, line or surface of a
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2.2.2 Propagation & Polarization Ve
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Longitudinal and shear waves- Defin
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Longitudinal and shear waves
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In longitudinal waves, the oscillat
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Longitudinal Wave
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Shear waves vibrate particles at ri
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In the transverse or shear wave, th
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2.2.5 Rayleigh Characteristics Rayl
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Rayleigh waves
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Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel
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The major axis of the ellipse is pe
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Surface wave or Rayleigh wave are f
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Surface wave - Following Contour Su
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Rayleigh Wave http://web.ics.purdue
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Love Wave
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At this depth, wave energy is about
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Q: Which of the following modes of
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Since the 1990s, the understanding
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Plate or Lamb waves are the most co
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Plate wave or Lamb wave are formed
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When guided in layers they are refe
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Symmetrical = extensional mode Asym
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Other Reading: Lamb Wave Lamb waves
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Fig. 4 Diagram of the basic pattern
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2.2.7 Dispersive Wave: Wave modes s
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Plate or Lamb waves are generated a
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2.3: Sound Propagation in Elastic M
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Spring model- A mass on a spring ha
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Elastic Model
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Elastic Model / Longitudinal Wave
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Elastic Model / Shear Wave
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Since the mass m and the spring con
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Elastic constant → spring constan
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Q163 Acoustic velocity of materials
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When calculating the velocity of a
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It must also be mentioned that the
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Longitudinal Wave Velocity: V L The
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2.4: Properties of Acoustic Plane W
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http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationReso
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Java don’t work? Uninstalled →
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Java don’t work? http://jingyan.b
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Java don’t work? http://jingyan.b
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The velocities sound waves The velo
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2.5: Wavelength and Defect Detectio
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Keywords: • Discontinuity must be
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Keywords: • Coarse grains →Lowe
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Coarse grains →Lower frequency to
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Keywords: • Higher the frequency,
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2.5.3 Further Reading Detectability
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Determining cross sectional area us
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“Sonic pulse volume” and S/N (d
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2.6: Attenuation of Sound Waves 2.6
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Absorption: Sound attenuations are
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Anisotropic Columnar Grains with di
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The amplitude change of a decaying
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Attenuation is generally proportion
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Amplitude at distance Z where: Wher
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2.6.2 Factors Affecting Attenuation
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2.6.4 Further Reading on Attenuatio
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Q168: Heat conduction, viscous fric
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2.7: Acoustic Impedance Acoustic im
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Sound travels through materials und
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Reflection/Transmission Energy as a
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Q2.8: The acoustic impedance of mat
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When the acoustic impedances of the
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Reflection Coefficient:
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Using the above applet, note that t
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Incident Wave other than Normal? -
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Q: The figure above shown the parti
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For example: The dB loss on transmi
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Q6: For an ultrasonic beam with nor
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Refraction and Snell's Law When an
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Refraction takes place at an interf
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Snell's Law describes the relations
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Snell Law http://www.ndt-ed.org/Edu
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When a longitudinal wave moves from
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Refraction and mode conversion occu
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For example, calculate the first cr
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Snell Law: 1 st / 2 nd Critical Ang
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Q. Both longitudinal and shear wave
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Typical angle beam assemblies make
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Depth & Skip
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Second Critical Angle The second cr
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2.10: Mode Conversion When sound tr
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In the previous section, it was poi
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Snell's Law
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Reflections
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V S1 V S2
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Snell Law- 1 st & 2 nd Critical Ang
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Transverse wave can be introduced i
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Calculate the offset for following
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Refraction and mode conversion at n
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Refraction and mode conversion at n
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Q1. From the above figures, if the
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Q: On Calculation: Incident angle=
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Q1. If you were requested to design
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2.11: Signal-to-Noise Ratio In a pr
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The following formula relates some
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Rather than go into the details of
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Determining cross sectional area us
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“Sonic pulse volume” and S/N (d
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Pulse Length
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2.12: The Sound Fields 2.12.1 Wave
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When waves interact, they superimpo
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UT Transducer http://www.fhwa.dot.g
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UT Transducer
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Wave Interaction Complete in-phase
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With an ultrasonic transducer, the
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29. It is possible for a discontinu
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2.12.2 Variations in sound intensit
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The sound wave exit from a transduc
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The Near Field (Fresnel) and the Fa
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Amplitude ← Near Field Effect: Be
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Near field (near zone) or Fresnel z
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Near/ Far Fields http://miac.unibas
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where α is the radius of the trans
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The curvature and the area over whi
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Fresnel & Fraunhofer Zone
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Fresnel & Fraunhofer Zone http://st
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Q4: A transducer has a near field i
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2.12.4 Dead Zone In ultrasonic test
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Dead Zone -The initial pulse is a t
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Dead Zone Illustration http://www.n
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Q: On an A-scan display, the “dea
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2.13: Inverse Square Rule/ Inverse
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Small Reflector, a reflector smalle
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2.14: Resonance Another form wave i
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Thickness of Crystal at Fundamental
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Resonance UT Testing- The diagram b
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From the natural frequencies it is
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Q: The formula used to determine th
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2.15 Measurement of Sound
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Ultrasonic Formula - Signal Amplitu
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where: delta X is the difference in
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From this table it can be seen that
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However, the power or intensity of
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Revising the table to reflect the r
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Sound Levels- Relative dB
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“Absolute" Sound Levels Sound pre
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dB meter 97.3dB against standards s
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Exercise: Find the absolute sound l
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Practice: dB
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Example Calculation 2 If the intens
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What is the absolute rock concert s
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Practice Makes Perfect 28. An advan
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学习总是开心事
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Typical sound velocities
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Content: Section 3: Equipment & Tra
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3.1: Piezoelectric Transducers The
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Pulse width (PW) - the time duratio
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Piezoelectric Properties The conver
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Fig. 5.10: Basic design of a single
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Piezoelectric crystals http://www.n
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Piezoelectric crystals
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The active element of most acoustic
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The fundamental frequency of the tr
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At Interface: Reflection & Transmit
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At Interface: Reflection & Transmit
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■ Quartz is a Silicon Oxide (SiO
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SiO3-Silicon Quartz
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Lithium Sulphate LiSO 4 硫酸锂
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■ Barium Titanate (BaTiO 3 ) are
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BaTiO 3
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Fig. 3: Comparison between PZT (lef
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■ Lead Zirconate Titanate (PBZrO
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350°C is also goof for:
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350°C is also goof for:
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Lead zirconium Titanate is an inter
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http://www.ndt.net/article/platte2/
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Ceramic Transducer
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Q68: Which of the following transdu
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Q73: Which of the following is the
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Transducer
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3.2.1 Transducer Cut-Out A cut away
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Transducer
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Transducer: Angle Beam
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3.2.2 The Active Element (Crystal)
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Matching Layer: Immersion & Delay T
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Note on Backing: The backing materi
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Matching Layer (Wear Plate) For imm
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Transducers
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3.2.6 Transducer Efficiency, Bandwi
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2 λ 50% Amplitude or 6dB line. 2
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3.2.6.2 Transducer Damping It is al
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Transducer (Backing) Damping: • H
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Transducer Damping
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Transducer Damping at -20dB
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Transducer Damping
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Wave form Duration at -10dB
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Transducer Damping- High Damping (X
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3.2.6.3 Bandwidth: It is also impor
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The central frequency will also def
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Bandwidth (BW) - the difference bet
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Transducers are constructed to with
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Instrumentation Filtered Band Width
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Q8: Receiver noise must often be fi
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Q48: The approximate bandwidth of t
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Since the ultrasound originates fro
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Near Field
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Angular characteristics: Lines of e
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Angular characteristics: Sound-pres
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For a piston source transducer of r
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Spherical or cylindrical focusing c
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Probe Dimension & Spread angle 探
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Probe dimension & Z f , , Ɵ 探
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3.4: Transducer Beam Spread As disc
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As shown in the applet below, beam
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Beam angle is an important consider
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3.5: Transducer Types Ultrasonic tr
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Contact Transducers
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Contact Transducer http://www.olymp
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3.5.2 Immersion transducers In imme
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Focusing Ration in water/steel (F=4
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Focal Length Equation: The focal le
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Focal Length Variations
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Cylindrical & Spherical Focused
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Q79: What type of search unit allow
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Q78: Which of the following is not
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For a single crystal probe the leng
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There are other advantages 1. Doubl
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Advantages: Improves near surface r
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Duo Elements Transducer Transmittin
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3.5.4 Delay line transducers provid
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Other Reading (Olympus): Delay Line
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Delay lined Transducer
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Probe Delay with TR-Probe
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Probe Delay
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Delay Line UT 1 Lab 8 www.youtube.c
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Angle Beam Transducers- Angle beam
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Angle Beam Transducers ϴ 1L ϴ 2L
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Angle Beam Transducers- Mode Conver
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Angle Beam Transducers- Common Term
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Angle Beam Transducer http://www.ol
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Application of Normal incidence she
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Normal incidence shear wave transdu
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Q: To evaluate and accurately locat
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Q: A special scanning device with t
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3.6: Transducer Testing Some transd
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TRANSDUCER EXCITATION As a general
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Square Wave Spiked Pulser: (negativ
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UT Flaw Detector - Olympus EPOCH 60
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Effects of Probe Frequencies: 1. Hi
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As noted in the ASTM E1065 Standard
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Relative Pulse-Echo Sensitivity--Th
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Sound Field Measurements--The objec
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There is ongoing research to develo
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3.8: Couplants A couplant is a mate
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Immersion Method - Water as a coupl
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Squirter Column (bubbler)- Water as
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Couplant
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Electromagnetic-acoustic transducer
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EMAT
Page 614 and 615:
Electromagnetic acoustic transducer
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3. Dry Inspection. Since no couplan
Page 618 and 619:
Applications of EMATs EMAT has been
Page 620 and 621:
Cross-sectional view of a spiral co
Page 622 and 623:
Cross-sectional view of a tangentia
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EMATS The bulk-shear-wave EMAT cons
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Cross-sectional view of a periodic
Page 628 and 629:
3.10: Pulser-Receivers Ultrasonic p
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Transducer Cut-out
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Pulse Length: BS4331 Pt2. N= Pulse
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Pulse Length: A long pulse length m
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Pulse Length
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Pulse Length
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Pulse-Length and Wave form Quality
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Pulse Length- x axis time domain Qu
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Pulse-echo mode of operation, wideb
Page 647 and 648:
Sensitivity in pulse-echo mode of o
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Damping: Shock wave transducer and
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The pulser-receiver is also used in
Page 653 and 654:
Transducers of the kind most common
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Bandwidth - Typical transducers for
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In fact, the actual beam profile is
Page 659 and 660:
Attenuation - As it travels through
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3.11: Tone Burst Generators In Rese
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Tone burst generators http://www.se
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Section of biphase modulated spread
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3.13: Electrical Impedance Matching
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Cable Electrical Characteristics Th
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Capacitance in a cable is usually m
Page 673 and 674:
Quality Factor “Q”
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3.15: Data Presentation Ultrasonic
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Data Presentation:
Page 679 and 680:
In the A-scan presentation, relativ
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A-Scan http://static3.olympus-ims.c
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3.15.2 B-Scan http://static2.olympu
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B-Scan http://static2.olympus-ims.c
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It should be noted that a limitatio
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Q: In a B-scan display, the length
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C-Scan The (1) relative signal ampl
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C-Scan / A-Scan
Page 696 and 697:
C-Scan
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C-Scan Recording
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The D scan- The D scan gives a side
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3.15.5 The Through Transmission Sha
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Fig. 12.1 Principle of the shadow m
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3.15.6 Other Presentations
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3.16.2 Through Transmission Techniq
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The Through Transmission Shadow Met
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The Tandem Techniques Phased array:
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During the set-up of immersion meth
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3.17 UT Equipment Circuitry & Contr
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Instrument Circuitry: Time base The
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Instrument Circuitry: Power Supply.
Page 723 and 724:
Instrument Circuitry: Signal-condit
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Instrument Circuitry: Clock The clo
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Instrument Circuitry: Pulser-Receiv
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Instrument Control: REJECT Control
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Instrument Control: GAIN Control Th
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• A control that varies the level
Page 735 and 736:
• High-voltage or low-voltage dri
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3.17.3 Pulse-Echo Instrumentation (
Page 739:
3. The voltage pulse reaches the tr
Page 742 and 743:
Typical block diagram of an analog
Page 744 and 745:
3.17.4 B Scan Block diagram: B-scan
Page 746 and 747:
Typical B-scan setup, including vid
Page 748 and 749:
• Third, echoes are indicated by
Page 750 and 751:
3.17.5 C-scan display C-scan displa
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System Setup. In a basic C-scan sys
Page 754 and 755:
Q79: In the pulse echo instrument,
Page 756 and 757:
Q1: The rate generator in B-scan eq
Page 758 and 759:
Q129: An A-scan display, which show
Page 760 and 761:
Q32: On many ultrasonic testing ins
Page 762 and 763:
123. In a basic pulse echo ultrason
Page 764 and 765:
3.18 Further Reading on Sub-Section
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In this picture there is two differ
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This picture shows how water waves
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3.18.4 Diffraction
Page 772 and 773:
Diffraction
Page 774 and 775:
Diffraction
Page 776 and 777:
Diffraction
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This diagram shows an interference.
Page 780 and 781:
Interference
Page 782 and 783:
3.19 Questions & Answers
Page 784 and 785:
Q12: The 1 MHz transducer that shou
Page 786 and 787:
Q4. Calibration of ultrasonic equip
Page 788 and 789:
Discussion Topic: Factors affecting
Page 790:
Experts at Work-Salute!
Page 794 and 795:
Content: Section 4: Calibration Met
Page 796 and 797:
Calibrations
Page 798 and 799:
This section will discuss some of t
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The IIW Type Calibration Block
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The IIW Type 2 Calibration Block
Page 804 and 805:
EN12223:1999 Calibration Block
Page 806 and 807:
The IIW Calibration Block 1 st Chec
Page 808:
The IIW Calibration Block 2 nd Chec
Page 812 and 813:
The IIW Phase Array Calibration Blo
Page 814 and 815:
The IIW 2 Calibration Block Check f
Page 816 and 817:
Calibration Blocks- Area Amplitude
Page 818 and 819:
IIW Blocks- US-1 IIW Type US-1
Page 820 and 821:
IIW Blocks- IIW Type Mini
Page 822 and 823:
IIW type blocks are used to calibra
Page 824 and 825:
A block that closely resembles the
Page 826 and 827:
DSC AWS Block
Page 828 and 829:
AWS Shear Wave Distance Calibration
Page 830 and 831:
The DC AWS Block is a metal path di
Page 832 and 833:
The RC Block is used to determine t
Page 834 and 835:
Miniature Resolution Block The mini
Page 836 and 837:
Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block The
Page 838 and 839:
The ASTM basic set of Area/Distance
Page 840 and 841:
Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks Dist
Page 842 and 843:
Area-Amplitude Blocks Area-amplitud
Page 844 and 845:
Key Words: Distance Amplitude Block
Page 846 and 847:
Q: A primary purpose of a reference
Page 848 and 849:
DAC Curve
Page 850 and 851:
DAC- Distance Amplitude Correction
Page 853 and 854: A distance amplitude correction cur
Page 855 and 856: DAC Java http://www.ndt-ed.org/Educ
Page 857 and 858: Sequence for constructing a DAC cur
Page 859 and 860: Back Wall Echo Sweep 2” / Distanc
Page 861 and 862: 3.) Position the transducer over th
Page 863 and 864: 5.) To complete the DAC curve conne
Page 865 and 866: DAC Curve
Page 867: Gain Control for FSH: It should be
Page 870 and 871: Alta Vista UT Calibration DAC Curve
Page 872 and 873: Exit Point A2 Block
Page 874 and 875: Q16: Notches are frequently used as
Page 876 and 877: Probe Angles- A2 Block
Page 878 and 879: 4.2.4: Calibration of shear waves f
Page 880 and 881: 1 st Echo from circular Section
Page 882 and 883: Calibration of shear waves for rang
Page 884 and 885: 25 mm radius from V2 Block
Page 886 and 887: 100 mm radius from K2 Block
Page 888 and 889: Shear Wave Distance Calibration IIW
Page 890 and 891: 4.2.5: Dead Zone Determine the dead
Page 892 and 893: 4.2.6: 20 dB Profile- A5 Block
Page 894 and 895: 20 dB Profile Probe Beam Sound Pres
Page 896 and 897: Example: 0 degree Probe Calibration
Page 898 and 899: TRANSFER & ATTENUATION CORRECTION:
Page 900 and 901: 4.2.8: Linearity Checks (Time Base
Page 902: Tolerance Unless otherwise specifie
Page 909: Tolerance Frequency of checking The
Page 914 and 915: Figure 6 — General purpose set-up
Page 916: Method A: 6.3.2.1 Apparatus—A tes
Page 919 and 920: Q61: The vertical linear range of a
Page 921 and 922: 4.3: Curvature Correction Curvature
Page 923 and 924: Concave surfaces work to focus the
Page 925 and 926: Convex surfaces work to defocus the
Page 927 and 928: Q: In transmitting sound energy int
Page 929 and 930: The resulting model allows computat
Page 931 and 932: Curvature Corrections
Page 933 and 934: Curvature Correction
Page 935 and 936: 4.4: Calibration References & Stand
Page 937 and 938: Reference Reflectors: are used as a
Page 939 and 940: Reference Reflectors are used as a
Page 941 and 942: Q80: The 50 mm diameter hole in an
Page 943 and 944: 4.6: Video Time http://v.pps.tv/pla
Page 945: Birring NDT Series, Ultrasonic Test
Page 951 and 952: Content: Section 5: Measurement Tec
Page 953 and 954:
5.1: Normal Beam Inspection Pulse-e
Page 955 and 956:
A-Scan
Page 957 and 958:
Precision ultrasonic thickness gage
Page 959 and 960:
5.2: Angle Beams I Angle Beam Trans
Page 961:
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges a
Page 964 and 965:
Flaw Location and Echo Display
Page 966 and 967:
Page 968 and 969:
Page 970 and 971:
Dead Zone
Page 972 and 973:
Flaw Location
Page 974 and 975:
Flaw Location with Angle Beam Trans
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Flaw Location with Angle Beam Trans
Page 978 and 979:
The angled sound beam is highly sen
Page 980 and 981:
How they work -- Snell's Law A soun
Page 982 and 983:
There are two advantages to designi
Page 984 and 985:
Contoured wedges
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Focused dual element angle beams Th
Page 988 and 989:
threaded snap-in steel with a shear
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Crack Tip Diffraction Methods No an
Page 992 and 993:
Crack Tip Diffraction Method The eq
Page 994 and 995:
6 dB Drop Method
Page 996 and 997:
6 dB Drop Method www.youtube.com/em
Page 998 and 999:
5.3.3 The 20 dB drop sizing method
Page 1000 and 1001:
20 dB Drop Sizing- For Small Reflec
Page 1002 and 1003:
Move the probe to the other side of
Page 1004 and 1005:
Note that we have only drawn the be
Page 1006 and 1007:
5.3.4 Equalization Back Wall Sizing
Page 1008 and 1009:
5.3.6 The DGS Method Distance Gain
Page 1010 and 1011:
Automatic Scanning
Page 1012 and 1013:
Dripless Bubbler
Page 1014 and 1015:
The second major consideration is h
Page 1016 and 1017:
Pulse-Echo and Pulse-Echo-Overlap M
Page 1018 and 1019:
EMATs http://www.resonic.com/error%
Page 1020 and 1021:
EMAT Driver Frequency: 450-600 KHz
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5.6: Attenuation Measurements Ultra
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The most common method used to get
Page 1026 and 1027:
Attenuation:
Page 1028 and 1029:
Section of bi-phase modulated sprea
Page 1030 and 1031:
Spread Spectrum UT
Page 1032 and 1033:
Two discrimination technique are te
Page 1034 and 1035:
5.8: Signal Processing Techniques S
Page 1036 and 1037:
The frequency domain display shows
Page 1038 and 1039:
Fourier Analysis
Page 1040 and 1041:
The following Fourier Java applet,
Page 1042 and 1043:
5.9: Scanning Methods Direct contac
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Pulse Echo Method: Sound pressure o
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Pulse Echo Method
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Pulse Echo Method
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Amplitude loss: Inverse Square Law
Page 1052 and 1053:
Influence of reflector orientation
Page 1054 and 1055:
Pulse Echo Method IP BE F plate del
Page 1056 and 1057:
5.9.2 Pitch-Catch Methods Advantage
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Pitch-Catch Methods- Through Transm
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5.9.2.2 Pitch-Catch Methods- Tandem
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Distance Between Transmitter / Rece
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5.9.3 Immersion Methods Many of the
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Immersion Methods- Since sound wave
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Modified Immersion Methods- Bubbler
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Angle Beam Immersion Methods Note t
Page 1072 and 1073:
Angle Beam Immersion Methods- Pipe
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Immersion Testing Set-up
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Manipulators The manipulator is pri
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Bridges When the manipulator is aut
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Immersion Testing Set-up Manipulato
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Immersion Testing Set-up Manipulato
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An unfocused transducer may be used
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Focus may be designated in three wa
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Q: In immersion testing, to remove
Page 1090 and 1091:
Q2: In an immersion test of a piece
Page 1092 and 1093:
Q176: To evaluate and accurately lo
Page 1094 and 1095:
5.10: Scanning Patterns
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5.11: Pulse Repetition Rate and Pen
Page 1098 and 1099:
Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetrati
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Pulse-Length and Near Surface Sensi
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5.12: Interferences & Non-Relevant
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Specimen Surface Interference Exces
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Specimen Surface Interference- You
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Material Geometric Interference Fal
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Non Relevant Indication Large grain
Page 1112 and 1113:
Non Relevant Indications The geomet
Page 1114 and 1115:
Entry surface variables: Surface ro
Page 1116 and 1117:
Whether uniform or irregular, a rou
Page 1118 and 1119:
Keywords on Rough Surface: 1. The d
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The coating is sufficiently thin th
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5.13.3 Couplant Condition Both cont
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In more practical terms, for water
Page 1126 and 1127:
For example the plastics listed in
Page 1128 and 1129:
Like the decibel, the Neper is a un
Page 1130 and 1131:
Hence:
Page 1132 and 1133:
5.14 The Concept of Effective Dista
Page 1134 and 1135:
Q&A on The Concept of Effective Dis
Page 1136 and 1137:
Q2: A steel bar with 200 mm thick i
Page 1138 and 1139:
Q4: Assuming that Minimum 3 pulses
Page 1140 and 1141:
Q6: What is the maximum PRR is need
Page 1142 and 1143:
Q7: A steel plate size 6.2 m ×1.8
Page 1144 and 1145:
5.15: Questions & Answers Exercises
Page 1146 and 1147:
Compared 6 dB Drop Sizing with Equa
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Q5: Ultrasonic inspection is being
Page 1152 and 1153:
Break Time mms://a588.l3944020587.c
Page 1156 and 1157:
Content: Section 6: Selected Applic
Page 1158 and 1159:
6.1: Defects & Discontinuities
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Flaw Orientation: Parallel / Perpen
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6.1.1 Casting Defects & Discontinui
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Casting Defects & Discontinuities-
Page 1166 and 1167:
Casting Defects & Discontinuities
Page 1168 and 1169:
Casting Defects & Discontinuities
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Page 1180 and 1181:
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Processing Defects & Discontinuitie
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Page 1190 and 1191:
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Page 1194:
6.1.3 Welding Defects & Discontinui
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Welding Defects & Discontinuities
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Welding Defects & Discontinuities-
Page 1205 and 1206:
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Page 1213 and 1214:
Page 1215 and 1216:
Service Induced Defects & Discontin
Page 1217 and 1218:
Figure 4-24 - In a carbon steel sam
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Figure 4-36 - Weld detail used to j
Page 1221 and 1222:
Figure 4-38 - Failure of DMW joinin
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Figure 4-58 - Cross-sectional view
Page 1225 and 1226:
Figure 5-2 - Hot Lean Amine Corrosi
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Figure 5-46 - Overhead interstage k
Page 1229 and 1230:
Figure 5-48 - Metallographic sample
Page 1231 and 1232:
Longitudinal cracks- Detected by fl
Page 1233 and 1234:
Rail Inspection One of the major pr
Page 1235 and 1236:
Transverse Fissure
Page 1237 and 1238:
Transverse Fissure
Page 1239 and 1240:
Techniques: Wheel Probe
Page 1241 and 1242:
Techniques: (c) same with additiona
Page 1243 and 1244:
6.3.1: UT of Weldments (Welded Join
Page 1245 and 1246:
UT Calculator
Page 1247 and 1248:
The second step in the inspection i
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https://www.mandinasndt.com/index.p
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Flaw Detection- Triangulations of r
Page 1254 and 1255:
6.3.2 Weld Scanning
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Typical Scanning Patterns: Typicall
Page 1258 and 1259:
Weld Scanning
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Weld Scanning
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Echo Dynamic- Position of Defects S
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Plate Weld Scanning
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Plate Weld Scanning
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Plate Weld Scanning
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Practice Makes Perfect 62. Which of
Page 1272 and 1273:
Pipe & Tube
Page 1274 and 1275:
Experts at work
Page 1276 and 1277:
Pipe Scanning
Page 1278 and 1279:
Pipe Scanning
Page 1280 and 1281:
Pipe Scanning- thickness/OD ratio
Page 1282 and 1283:
Pipe Scanning- Contact Methods
Page 1284 and 1285:
Pipe Scanning- Contact Methods
Page 1286 and 1287:
Answer part B c a b a/Sin A = b/Sin
Page 1288 and 1289:
Q35: Which of the following may res
Page 1290 and 1291:
Expert at works
Page 1292 and 1293:
Basic echodynamic pattern of reflec
Page 1294 and 1295:
C.1 Pattern 1 Point-like reflector
Page 1296 and 1297:
C.2 Pattern 2 Extended (elongated)
Page 1298 and 1299:
C.2 Pattern 2 Extended (elongated)
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C.3 Pattern 3a Extended (elongated)
Page 1302 and 1303:
C.3 Pattern 3a Extended (elongated)
Page 1304 and 1305:
C.3 Pattern 3b Oblique incidence, t
Page 1306 and 1307:
C.4 Pattern 4 Multiple reflector re
Page 1308 and 1309:
C.4 Pattern 4 Multiple reflector re
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Echodynamic- Differences between th
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Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Flaw
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Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Flaw
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Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Impr
Page 1318 and 1319:
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Angl
Page 1320 and 1321:
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Perf
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Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Vert
Page 1324 and 1325:
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Tand
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Echo Dynamic
Page 1328 and 1329:
Echo Dynamic
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Echo Dynamic
Page 1332 and 1333:
Echo Dynamic Crack
Page 1334 and 1335:
Echo Dynamic- Shaper indication and
Page 1336 and 1337:
Echo Dynamic Threadlike defects, po
Page 1338 and 1339:
Echo Dynamic In case “a” it wil
Page 1340 and 1341:
Echo Dynamic Typical Echo Dynamic P
Page 1342 and 1343:
Q. A smooth flat discontinuity whos
Page 1344 and 1345:
Q24. During inspection of a paralle
Page 1346 and 1347:
Q50: The reflection amplitude of a
Page 1348 and 1349:
Crack - Air filled Crack has greate
Page 1350 and 1351:
Inclusion Macro- Nonmetallic Inclus
Page 1352 and 1353:
6.6: Technique Sheets
Page 1354 and 1355:
Hanger Pin Testing using Shear Wave
Page 1356 and 1357:
Physical Dimension
Page 1358 and 1359:
Physical Dimension
Page 1360 and 1361:
Reporting: Scanning Report - Top of
Page 1362 and 1363:
Mock-Up
Page 1364 and 1365:
Mock-Up
Page 1366 and 1367:
Mock-Up
Page 1368 and 1369:
Hanger Pin Testing using Shear Wave
Page 1370 and 1371:
Pitch and Catch Methods- Set-up
Page 1372 and 1373:
6.7: Material Properties- Elastic M
Page 1374 and 1375:
6.7.2 The attenuation method The at
Page 1376 and 1377:
6.7.3 Velocity Measurements Velocit
Page 1378 and 1379:
Elastic Modulus Measurement - Young
Page 1380 and 1381:
These basic material properties, wh
Page 1382 and 1383:
Equipment: The velocity measurement
Page 1384 and 1385:
Testing Procedure: Equipment Used.
Page 1386 and 1387:
Velocity & Equations Poisson Ratio
Page 1388 and 1389:
6.8: High Temperature Ultrasonic Te
Page 1390 and 1391:
1.0 Background: Although most ultra
Page 1392 and 1393:
Temperature Limitation: Conventiona
Page 1394 and 1395:
Page 1396 and 1397:
Page 1398 and 1399:
敦煌大漠美食 - 50 度
Page 1400 and 1401:
2.0 Methods used for H.Temperature
Page 1402 and 1403:
For precision thickness gauging app
Page 1404 and 1405:
(1b) Flaw detection As in high temp
Page 1406 and 1407:
2.2 High Temperature Couplants Most
Page 1408 and 1409:
Keyword: Note that normal incidence
Page 1410 and 1411:
As a general rule, if the outer cas
Page 1412 and 1413:
2.4 Equipment Functions Freeze Func
Page 1414 and 1415:
Keyword: ■ ■ Velocity change of
Page 1416 and 1417:
3.3 Increased Attenuation: Sound at
Page 1418 and 1419:
3.4 Angular Variation in Wedges: Wi
Page 1420:
6.9: Dimension-Measurement Applicat
Page 1424 and 1425:
6.9.2 Thickness measurements are ma
Page 1426 and 1427:
6.9.3 Position measurements Positio
Page 1428 and 1429:
Fig. 60 Method of determining corre
Page 1430 and 1431:
Fig. 61 Setup for determining the p
Page 1432 and 1433:
6.10: In-Service Inspection
Page 1434 and 1435:
In-Service Inspection- Testing for
Page 1436 and 1437:
In-Service Inspection- (a) Crack te
Page 1438 and 1439:
In-Service Inspection- (a) Testing
Page 1440 and 1441:
6.11: Casting
Page 1442 and 1443:
Casting- Typical casting defects an
Page 1444 and 1445:
Casting- Detection of shrinkage cav
Page 1446 and 1447:
Inspection of Bonded Joints If the
Page 1448 and 1449:
Olympus Data on Bond Testing Our co
Page 1450 and 1451:
The BondMaster 1000e+ allows users
Page 1452 and 1453:
Bond Testing: OmniScan MX ECA/ECT B
Page 1454 and 1455:
OmniScan MX ECA/ECT: Eight Frequenc
Page 1456 and 1457:
Customers who already own an OmniSc
Page 1458 and 1459:
OmniScan MX ECA/ECT
Page 1460 and 1461:
Q41: The best type of frequency for
Page 1462 and 1463:
Corrosion Monitoring Ultrasonic ins
Page 1464 and 1465:
6.14: Crack Monitoring
Page 1466 and 1467:
Monitoring of fatigue cracks in par
Page 1468 and 1469:
For example, 150 mm (6 in.) diam, 8
Page 1470 and 1471:
Stress Measurements With ultrasonic
Page 1472 and 1473:
Family Day
Page 1474 and 1475:
6.App-1.1 TOFD Basic Theory TOFD is
Page 1476 and 1477:
6.App-1.2 Main Benefits of TOFD for
Page 1478 and 1479:
6.App-1.3 6.App-1.3.1 The Theory Mo
Page 1480 and 1481:
TOFD is generally recognised as the
Page 1482 and 1483:
TOFD Transmitter Receiver Crack Bac
Page 1484 and 1485:
6.App-1.2 Application Examples ■
Page 1486 and 1487:
Figure 5-3 - Preferential weld corr
Page 1488 and 1489:
Weld Root Corrosion and Erosion Pul
Page 1490 and 1491:
TOFD is deployed by scanning the we
Page 1492 and 1493:
Scan of weld with cursor positioned
Page 1494 and 1495:
Measurement of corroded area shows
Page 1496 and 1497:
6.App-1.3.4 TOFD Benefits for Corro
Page 1498 and 1499:
6.App-1.3.5 Overview on Scanning Di
Page 1500 and 1501:
■ Parallel TOFD scanning: Where t
Page 1502 and 1503:
Typical “Parallel” Weld Scannin
Page 1504 and 1505:
6.App-1.3.6 Further Reading- Introd
Page 1506 and 1507:
Page 1508 and 1509:
Page 1510 and 1511:
Sail Off
Page 1512 and 1513:
Content: Section 7: Reference Mater
Page 1514 and 1515:
7.2: General References & Resources
Page 1516:
Calibrating 70° Probe with IIW Blo
Page 1521 and 1522:
Content: Section 8: Ultrasonic Insp
Page 1523 and 1524:
Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
Page 1525 and 1526:
8.2: Online UT Quizzes
Page 1527 and 1528:
http://www.ndtcalc.com/index.php?pa
Page 1533:
Addendum-01a Equipment Calibrations
Page 1536 and 1537:
Attenuation due to Beam spread for:
Page 1538 and 1539:
Attenuation Due to Beam Spread: Sma
Page 1540 and 1541:
Material Attenuation Determination:
Page 1542 and 1543:
Δ dB = total Material attenuation
Page 1544 and 1545:
Construction of beam edges plot- No
Page 1546 and 1547:
20dB drop to find edges of beam
Page 1548 and 1549:
Construction of beam spread at 13mm
Page 1550 and 1551:
Construction of beam spread at 32mm
Page 1552 and 1553:
Perspex as Matching Layer/Wedge Tun
Page 1554 and 1555:
First/ Second Critical Angles V L1
Page 1556 and 1557:
Finding the probe index
Page 1558 and 1559:
Checking the probe Angle:
Page 1560 and 1561:
Calibration for range:
Page 1562 and 1563:
Angle Beam- Beam edges Proving (Ver
Page 1564 and 1565:
The IOW Block: The Institute of Wel
Page 1566 and 1567:
Angle Beam- Beam edges Proving (Hor
Page 1568 and 1569:
Page 1570 and 1571:
Page 1572 and 1573:
The DAC
Page 1574 and 1575:
DAC Curve
Page 1576 and 1577:
FLAT Bottom Holes FBH
Page 1578 and 1579:
Reading on: FLAT Bottom Holes FBH h
Page 1580 and 1581:
Transfer Corection
Page 1582 and 1583:
Transfer Correction: Reference surf
Page 1584 and 1585:
Transfer Correction:
Page 1586 and 1587:
Transfer Correction: Compression Pr
Page 1588 and 1589:
DGS- Distance Gain Size http://www.
Page 1590 and 1591:
DGS is a primarily mathematical tec
Page 1592 and 1593:
(Curve #2) represent the relative a
Page 1594 and 1595:
(Curve #2) represent the relative a
Page 1596 and 1597:
DGS- Different sizes of FBH at diff
Page 1598 and 1599:
What is DGS TCG is a time-corrected
Page 1600 and 1601:
Locating & Sizing Flaws
Page 1602 and 1603:
With ultrasonic instruments having
Page 1604 and 1605:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1606 and 1607:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1608 and 1609:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1610 and 1611:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1612 and 1613:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1614 and 1615:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1616 and 1617:
Scanning Patterns
Page 1622 and 1623:
Scanning Patterns http://www.olympu
Page 1624 and 1625:
Practice Makes Perfect 35. The 2 mm
Page 1626 and 1627:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation
Page 1628 and 1629:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Transmit
Page 1630 and 1631:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Applied
Page 1632 and 1633:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Switch t
Page 1634 and 1635:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation CLOCK GE
Page 1636 and 1637:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Sensitiv
Page 1638 and 1639:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Transduc
Page 1640 and 1641:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation The Rece
Page 1642 and 1643:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Radio-Fr
Page 1644 and 1645:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation The Imag
Page 1646 and 1647:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Excess G
Page 1648 and 1649:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Time Gai
Page 1650 and 1651:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation KNEE MAX
Page 1652 and 1653:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation KNEE Gai
Page 1654 and 1655:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Slide Po
Page 1656 and 1657:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Types of
Page 1658 and 1659:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Receiver
Page 1660 and 1661:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Large ra
Page 1662 and 1663:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Linear a
Page 1664 and 1665:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Gain A L
Page 1666 and 1667:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Pre-ampl
Page 1668 and 1669:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Saturati
Page 1670 and 1671:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation DEMODULA
Page 1672 and 1673:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Half-Wav
Page 1674 and 1675:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation DETECTIO
Page 1676 and 1677:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation The vide
Page 1678 and 1679:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation All Scan
Page 1680 and 1681:
Matrix Rows x, coordinates
Page 1682 and 1683:
Matrix Pixel
Page 1684:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation In the S
Page 1688 and 1689:
X X X X X X X X X X X X
Page 1690 and 1691:
Raster Process 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
Page 1692 and 1693:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation The numb
Page 1694 and 1695:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Bit 1 2
Page 1696 and 1697:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Operator
Page 1698 and 1699:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation POST PRO
Page 1700 and 1701:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation The DSC
Page 1702 and 1703:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation Resoluti
Page 1704 and 1705:
Pulse-Echo Instrumentation 1. ROM 2
Page 1706 and 1707:
66. In Figure 3, transducer C is be
Page 1708 and 1709:
69. In Figure 4, transducer B is be
Page 1710 and 1711:
Q: The output voltage from a satura
Page 1712:
Addendum-02 Equations & Calculation
Page 1717 and 1718:
Contents: 1. Material Acoustic Prop
Page 1720 and 1721:
2.0 Ultrasonic Formula http://www.n
Page 1722 and 1723:
Ultrasonic Formula α = Transducer
Page 1724 and 1725:
4.0 The Speed of Sound Hooke's Law,
Page 1726 and 1727:
V is the speed of sound Eleatic con
Page 1728 and 1729:
E/N/G
Page 1730 and 1731:
Spreading/ Scattering/ adsorption (
Page 1732 and 1733:
Amplitude at distance Z Where v is
Page 1734 and 1735:
Which U t ? U 0 t , A 0 o U 1 t , A
Page 1736 and 1737:
The following applet can be used to
Page 1738 and 1739:
Reflection and Transmission Coeffic
Page 1740 and 1741:
If reflection and transmission at i
Page 1742 and 1743:
Q1: What is the percentage of initi
Page 1744 and 1745:
8.0 Snell’s Law Snell's Law holds
Page 1746 and 1747:
Practice Makes Perfect 5. For an ul
Page 1748 and 1749:
Practice Makes Perfect 9. Calculate
Page 1750 and 1751:
9.0 S/N Ratio The following formula
Page 1752 and 1753:
Sound Volume: Area x pulse length
Page 1754:
where α is the radius of the trans
Page 1758 and 1759:
Example: Calculate the modified Nea
Page 1760 and 1761:
11.0 Focusing & Focal Length http:/
Page 1762 and 1763:
12.0 Offset of Normal probe above c
Page 1764 and 1765:
13.0 “Q” Factor 3dB down
Page 1766:
Inverse Square Law http://www.cyber
Page 1769 and 1770:
DGS Distance Gain Sizing Y-axis sho
Page 1771 and 1772:
The blue curves plotted show how th
Page 1773 and 1774:
20-4dB=16dB (deduced) Δ Flaw =30-1
Page 1775 and 1776:
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/atlas
Page 1777:
DGS is a primarily mathematical tec
Page 1780 and 1781:
Figure1:
Page 1782 and 1783:
15.0 Pulse Repetitive Frequency/Rat
Page 1784 and 1785:
Q4-12 Answer: First calculate the p
Page 1790 and 1791:
Addendum-03 Questions & Answers I C
Page 1792 and 1793:
Make mistakes now, not during exam!
Page 1794 and 1795:
30. On an A-scan display the dead z
Page 1796 and 1797:
31. As the acoustic impedance ratio
Page 1798 and 1799:
15. Which type of test block is use
Page 1800 and 1801:
Mistake Made ----------------------
Page 1802 and 1803:
Question: Which type of screen pres
Page 1805 and 1806:
Table 1.2
Page 1807 and 1808:
Q1-13 The second critical angle at
Page 1809 and 1810:
For evaluating material properties
Page 1811 and 1812:
Q1-22 The beam spread half angle I
Page 1813 and 1814:
Q2-12 An angle beam produce a 45°
Page 1815 and 1816:
Q2-17 A change in echo amplitude fr
Page 1817 and 1818:
Q2-19 What is the rate of attenuati
Page 1819 and 1820:
Q2-11 A change in 16dB on the atten
Page 1821 and 1822:
Q3-7 The half angle beam spread of
Page 1823 and 1824:
Monkey made mistake too!
Page 1825 and 1826:
Smart Himba Girl do not made mistak
Page 1827 and 1828:
Smart Himba Girl do not made mistak
Page 1829 and 1830:
Q3-8 Answer: The next SDH used will
Page 1831 and 1832:
Q3-13 During examination, an indica
Page 1833 and 1834:
Q3-15 In contact testing, the back
Page 1835 and 1836:
Q4-13 Answer: PRR = number of pulse
Page 1837 and 1838:
Q4-16
Page 1839 and 1840:
Q4-17 Illustrations Complete loop=4
Page 1841 and 1842:
8. When testing a 30 mm diameter, 5
Page 1843 and 1844:
Q5-20 Answer: None of above
Page 1845:
Q5-22 Table B-1
Page 1848 and 1849:
38. The angle of a refracted shear
Page 1850 and 1851:
48. A more highly damped transducer
Page 1852 and 1853:
47. When a vertical indication has
Page 1854 and 1855:
63. The purpose of the couplant is
Page 1856:
Immersion Testing Method
Page 1861 and 1862:
Standards Answer: B
Page 1863 and 1864:
Standards Answer: A (or C?)
Page 1865 and 1866:
Standards Answer: C
Page 1867 and 1868:
Standards Answer: C
Page 1869:
Standards Answer: A?
Page 1872 and 1873:
Arrows shown standard correct answe
Page 1874 and 1875:
Page 1876:
Page 1879 and 1880:
Page 1881 and 1882:
Page 1883 and 1884:
Take a break mms://a588.l3944020587
Page 1885 and 1886:
Page 1887 and 1888:
Practices Make Perfect
Page 1889 and 1890:
Click to Q&A http://www.ndtcalc.com
Page 1891 and 1892:
Ultrasonic Formula
Page 1893:
Page 1896 and 1897:
Echo Amplitude- Reflector Size “D
Page 1898 and 1899:
Scanning Speed: Scanner speed = (PR
Page 1900 and 1901:
Expert at Works
Page 1902 and 1903:
Content: Exercise 1 Exercise 2 Expe
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Practices Make Perfect
Page 1906 and 1907:
Click to Q&A http://www.ndtcalc.com
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2.0: Ultrasound Formula http://www.
Page 1910 and 1911:
Ultrasonic Formula
Page 1912:
Page 1915 and 1916:
Echo Amplitude- Reflector Size “D
Page 1917 and 1918:
Scanning Speed: Scanner speed = (PR
Page 1919 and 1920:
Offshore Lifts
Page 1921 and 1922:
Top Scorer
Page 1923 and 1924:
Exercises Studyblue-01
Page 1925 and 1926:
3. The only significant sound wave
Page 1927 and 1928:
7. The simple experiment where a st
Page 1929 and 1930:
11. The differences in signals rece
Page 1931 and 1932:
15. Which of the following may resu
Page 1933 and 1934:
19. When examining materials for pl
Page 1935 and 1936:
21. Rayleigh waves are influenced m
Page 1937 and 1938:
25. Which of the following scanning
Page 1939 and 1940:
29. At an interface between two dif
Page 1941 and 1942:
33. In the immersion technique, the
Page 1943 and 1944:
37. On an A-scan display, what repr
Page 1945 and 1946:
41. A 152 mm (6 in) diameter rod is
Page 1947 and 1948:
Immersion Testing Bridge Manipulato
Page 1949 and 1950:
45. Which best describes a typical
Page 1951 and 1952:
49. During a straight beam ultrason
Page 1953 and 1954:
53. A smooth flat discontinuity who
Page 1955 and 1956:
57. The angle at which 90 degrees r
Page 1957 and 1958:
61. Large gains in a metallic test
Page 1959 and 1960:
65. In Figure 3, transducer A is be
Page 1961 and 1962:
69. In Figure 4, transducer B is be
Page 1963 and 1964:
72. If you were requested to design
Page 1965 and 1966:
76. The electronic circuitry that a
Page 1967 and 1968:
80. The angle formed by an ultrason
Page 1969 and 1970:
83. A grouping of a number of cryst
Page 1971 and 1972:
85. The angular position of the ref
Page 1973 and 1974:
89. The change in direction of an u
Page 1975 and 1976:
93. In general, shear waves are mor
Page 1977 and 1978:
97. The speed with which ultrasonic
Page 1979 and 1980:
Barbecue Lamb
Page 1981 and 1982:
103. If ultrasonic wave is transmit
Page 1983 and 1984:
107. When inspecting a rolled or fo
Page 1985 and 1986:
111. During immersion testing of an
Page 1987 and 1988:
115. One of the most common applica
Page 1989 and 1990:
119. At a water-steel interface the
Page 1991 and 1992:
123. In a basic pulse echo ultrason
Page 1993 and 1994:
127. The instrument displays a plan
Page 1995 and 1996:
131. The motion of particles in a s
Page 1997 and 1998:
135. As frequency increases in ultr
Page 1999 and 2000:
139. The velocity of longitudinal w
Page 2001 and 2002:
143. A diagram in which the entire
Page 2003 and 2004:
147. The expansion and contraction
Page 2005 and 2006:
151. A quartz crystal cut so that i
Page 2007 and 2008:
153. When an ultrasonic beam reache
Page 2009 and 2010:
157. The most common used method of
Page 2011 and 2012:
161. Acoustic velocities of materia
Page 2013 and 2014:
165. The resolving power of a trans
Page 2015 and 2016:
169. Because the velocity of sound
Page 2017 and 2018:
173. In an A-scan presentation, the
Page 2019 and 2020:
Fiesta
Page 2021 and 2022:
Choices
Page 2023 and 2024:
179. Low frequency sound waves are
Page 2025 and 2026:
Frequency = 5 MHZ, Wavelength λ =
Page 2027 and 2028:
181. In immersion testing, the acce
Page 2029 and 2030:
183. In immersion testing, irreleva
Page 2031 and 2032:
187. The property of certain materi
Page 2033 and 2034:
191. The lack of parallelism betwee
Page 2035 and 2036:
195. Reducing the extent of the dea
Page 2037 and 2038:
199. Attenuation is the loss of the
Page 2039 and 2040:
203. The most commonly used method
Page 2041 and 2042:
Chicken & Squid Satay Treats
Page 2043 and 2044:
1. The wave mode that has multiple
Page 2045:
Addendum-04C Questions & Answers- I
Page 2048 and 2049:
Production Island
Page 2050 and 2051:
At works
Page 2053 and 2054:
Assorted Exercises
Page 2055 and 2056:
Q23. Propagation of ultrasonic wave
Page 2057 and 2058:
Q30. The sum of reflection & transm
Page 2059 and 2060:
Practice 2: Source: Lavender Intern
Page 2061 and 2062:
Q3. On a scan display the dead zone
Page 2063 and 2064:
Q7. In which zone does the amplitud
Page 2065 and 2066:
Q11. Of an A-scan display what repr
Page 2067 and 2068:
Q15. The ratio of the velocity of s
Page 2069 and 2070:
19. The total energy losses occurri
Page 2071 and 2072:
Other Sources
Page 2073:
Q47: A major (!) limitation of usin
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Preparatory Notes for ASNT NDT Level III Examination - Ultrasonic Testing, UT

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