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nents and poor photostability of polymers. Recent work on InP NQD/polymer structures [68] indicates improvement in the performance of hybridsystems. However, a many-orders improvement in the injection efficiency isstill required for achieving the gain threshold.One possible strategy to improve injection efficiencies can be throughcombining ‘‘soft’’ colloidal methods with traditional epitaxial techniques forincorporating dots into high-quality ‘‘injection’’ layers of wide-gap semiconductors.A possible technique that is ‘‘gentle’’ enough to be compatiblewith colloidal dots is energetic neutral atom beam epitaxy. This method utilizesa beam of neutral atoms carrying significant kinetic energy of severalelectron volts. The beam energy is sufficient for the activation of nonthermalsurface chemical reactions, eliminating the need for substrate heating in orderto grow high-quality films for NQD encapsulation.Because of highly efficient nonradiative Auger decay, the realization ofinjection pumping of NQD lasing devices is significantly more difficult thanpumping simple, ‘‘subthreshold’’ light emitters. Suppression of Auger recombinationwould simplify achieving lasing in the case of both optical andelectrical pumping. One possible approach for reducing Auger rates is basedon utilizing NQD shape control [69]. Previous work indicates that in sphericalnanoparticles, Auger rates scale inversely with NQD volume [16]. If this scalingis also valid for nonspherical, elongated nanoparticles (quantum rods), theefficiency of Auger recombination should decrease with increasing nanoparticleaspect ratio. Because for elongated particles the energy gap is primarilydetermined by the length of the ‘‘short’’ axis [70], quantum rods can, inprinciple, provide independent (or weakly dependent) controls for both theposition of the emission band (by varying the dimension along the ‘‘short’’axis) and the efficiency of Auger recombination (by changing the ‘‘long’’ axislength).Another interesting problem for future research is ‘‘single-exciton’’ versus‘‘biexciton’’ mechanisms for optical gain. The ‘‘biexcitonic’’ gain origin isa consequence of the degeneracy of the lowest emitting transition. If thedegeneracy is split using, for example, interactions with magnetic impurities[71], the gain can, in principle, be realized using NQD single-exciton states.In addition to reduced threshold, ‘‘single-exciton lasing’’ would eliminate theproblem of ultrafast gain decay due to multiparticle Auger recombination.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSI would like to acknowledge contributions of A. A. Mikhailovsky, J. A.Hollingsworth, M. A. Petruska, A. V. Malko, H. Htoon, and S. Xu to thework reviewed here. I am also grateful to Al. L. Efros and M. G. Bawendi forCopyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
numerous discussions on the photophysics of quantum dots. I would like tothank my wife, Tatiana, for her patience and continuing support throughoutmy research career and, specifically, during the work on this chapter.This work was supported by Los Alamos Directed Research and DevelopmentFunds, and the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Sciences,Division of Chemical Sciences.REFERENCES1. Arakawa, Y.; Sakaki, H. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1982, 40, 939.2. Asada, M.; Miyamoto, Y.; Suematsu, Y. IEEE J. Quantum Electron 1986, 22,1915.3. Vandyshev, Y.V.; Dneprovskii, V.S.; Klimov, V.I.; Okorokov, D.K. JETP Lett.1991, 54, 442.4. Ledentsov, N.N.; Ustinov, V.M.; Egorov, A.Y.; Zhukov, A.E.; Maksimov,M.V.; Tabatadze, I.G.; Kopev, P.S. Semiconductors 1994, 28, 832.5. Kistaedter, N.; Ledentsov, N.N.; Grundmann, M.; Bimber, D.; Ustinov, V.M.;Ruvimov, S.S.; Maximov, M.V.; Kopev, P.S.; Alferov, Z.I.; Richter, U. Electron.Lett. 1994, 30, 1416.6. Murray, C.B.; Norris, D.J.; Bawendi, M.G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993, 115, 8706.7. Alivisatos, A.P. Science 1996, 271, 933.8. Qu, L.; Peng, X. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 2049.9. Hines, M.; Guyot-Sionnest, P. J. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 468.10. Murray, C.B.; Kagan, C.B.; Bawendi, M.G. Science 1995, 270, 1335.11. Sundar, V.C.; Eisler, H.-J.; Bawendi, M.G. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14, 739.12. Petruska, M.A.; Malko, A.V.; Voyles, P.M.; Klimov, V.I. Adv. Mater. 2003,15, 610.13. Gindele, F.; Westphaeling, R.; Woggon, U.; Spanhel, L.; Ptatschek, V. Appl.Phys. Lett. 1997, 71, 2181.14. Benisty, H.; Sotomayor-Torres, C.; Weisbuch, C. Phys. Rev. B 1991, 44, 10945.15. Inoshita, T.; Sakaki, H. Phys. Rev. B 1992, 46, 7260.16. Klimov, V.I.; Mikhailovsky, A.A.; McBranch, D.W.; Leatherdale, C.A.;Bawendi, M.G. Science 2000, 287, 1011.17. Klimov, V.I.; Bawendi, M.G. MRS Bull. 2001, 26, 998.18. Efros, Al.L.; Efros, A.L. Sov. Phys. Semicond. 1982, 16, 772.19. Ekimov, A.I.; Hache, F.; Schanne-Klein, M.C.; Ricard, D.; Flytzanis, C.;Kudryavtsev, I.A.; Yazeva, T.V.; Rodina, A.V.; Efros, Al.L. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B1993, 10, 100.20. Efros, Al.L. Phys. Rev. B 1992, 46, 7448.21. Efros, Al.L.; Rodina, A.V. Phys. Rev. B 1993, 47, 10,005.22. Takagahara, T. Phys Rev. B 1993, 47, 4569.23. Nirmal, M.; Norris, D.J.; Kuno, M.; Bawendi, M.G.; Efros, Al.L.; Rosen, M.Phys. Rev. Lett. 1995, 75, 3728.Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, In
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This book covers several topics of
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esult, some exciting topics were no
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3. Fine Structure and Polarization
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9. III-V Quantum Dots and Quantum D
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ContributorsUri BaninThe Hebrew Uni
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1‘‘Soft’’ Chemical Synthesi
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structure of energy states leads to
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growth can proceed by Ostwald ripen
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Figure 3 Transmission electron micr
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Figure 4 Temporal evolution of the
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No. 26, are f85% (Fig. 6) [21]. Alt
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tion spectra and broad PL spectra.
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ing surface-to-volume ratio with di
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Figure 8 Photoluminescence spectra
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lattice mismatch. Such a large latt
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match between InAs and ZnS of f11%.
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successfully repeated for up to thr
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Under a different growth regime, on
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Figure 14 Atomic model of the CdSe
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‘‘Teardrop-shaped’’ particl
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Figure 17 High-resolution TEMs of C
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allows isolation of tetrapods in f8
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ligand concentrations yield a reduc
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een determined and quantitatively c
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tion volumes were also shown to be
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synthesis temperatures of z400jC ar
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Figure 23 (a) Photoluminescence spe
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levels (fV1 Mn per NQD). Despite in
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Figure 25 X-ray diffraction pattern
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Figure 27 Transmission electron mic
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An additional factor that strongly
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Figure 30 (a,b) Schematics illustra
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Slow, controlled precipitation of h
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Figure 34 Schematic illustrating th
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achieving biological compatibility
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47. Yu H.; Gibbons P.C.; Kelton K.F
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2Electronic Structure inSemiconduct
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Figure 2 (a) Simple model of a nano
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electron and hole to be treated as
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independently, Eq. (13) is commonly
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a better description of the bulk ba
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investigated. For optical experimen
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Figure 4 (a) Absorption (solid line
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Figure 6 Normalized PLE scans for s
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Figure 8 A simplistic model for des
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Figure 10 Theoretically predicted p
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Figure 12 Schematics depicting the
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Figure 14 Calculated band-edge exci
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Figure 15 Absorption (solid line) a
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Figure 18 (a) Calculated band-edge
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IV.BEYOND CdSeA. Indium Arsenide Na
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the six-band Luttinger Hamiltonian.
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11. Norris, D.J.; Efros, Al.L.; Ros
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69. Gaponenko, S.V.; Woggon, U.; Sa
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formation of a long-lived dark exci
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where the constant A is determined
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In crystals for which the function
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The respective wave functions areC
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passive, as was shown in Ref. 12. T
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square of the matrix element of the
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where e F = e F ieV and e F F = e x
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see that for all nanocrystal shapes
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optical recombination of the excito
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B. Recombination of the Dark Excito
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where x = cos h and f = l B g e H/3
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The theory of the polarization memo
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Figure 7 The size dependence of the
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state would have an infinite lifeti
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crystal axis [see Eq. (40)]. As a r
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time of the exciton momentum relaxa
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One must also account for the influ
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observed in one of the first studie
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REFERENCES1. Bawendi, M.G.; Wilson,
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4Intraband Spectroscopyand Dynamics
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The solid line in Fig. 1 shows the
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Figure 2 FTIR spectra of n-type CdS
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of the center frequency. The experi
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limit given by radiative relaxation
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from a long lifetime due to the pho
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are two natural approaches to study
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32. Inoshita, T.; Sakaki, H. Physic
Page 175 and 176: continuous spectral tunability over
Page 177 and 178: function and envelope function mome
Page 179 and 180: ottleneck’’ [14,28]. Further re
Page 181 and 182: in NQDs is dominated by nonphonon e
Page 183 and 184: Figure 4 Dynamics of the IR postpum
Page 185 and 186: Figure 5 (a) Time-resolved PL spect
Page 187 and 188: Figure 6 (a) The time delay of the
Page 189 and 190: and due to Auger-type e-h interacti
Page 191 and 192: Figure 9 Dynamics of the 1S bleachi
Page 193 and 194: significantly greater than the fast
Page 195 and 196: Figure 11 (a) Pump-intensity-depend
Page 197 and 198: NQD size. For small NQD sizes (R =
Page 199 and 200: Figure 14 Nonlinear absorption/gain
Page 201 and 202: sorption change associated with a s
Page 203 and 204: where n h em is the hole ‘‘emit
Page 205 and 206: ultrafast (subpicosecond to picosec
Page 207 and 208: Figure 18 Schematic of transitions
Page 209 and 210: Figure 19 Dynamics of pump-induced
Page 211 and 212: where n i (i=1, 2 . . . , N ) is th
Page 213 and 214: Figure 21 (a) Two-e-h-pair (biexcit
Page 215 and 216: the volume fraction (filling factor
Page 217 and 218: intensity dependence of this peak (
Page 219 and 220: Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, In
Page 221 and 222: can contribute to the saturation of
Page 223 and 224: Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, In
Page 225: coupling between ‘‘volume’’
Page 229 and 230: 53. Kang, K.; Kepner, A.; Gaponenko
Page 231 and 232: the ‘‘on-off ’’ emission in
Page 233 and 234: parallel form of data acquisition i
Page 235 and 236: Figure 3 (a) Spectral time trace of
Page 237 and 238: transition energies. In fact, these
Page 239 and 240: distribution (dark line) does not d
Page 241 and 242: exposure to only room light. In our
Page 243 and 244: statistics for the off times are in
Page 245 and 246: 230Shimizu and BawendiCopyright 200
Page 247 and 248: Figure 10 (a) Time trace of a CdSe(
Page 249 and 250: and excited QD core states to fluct
Page 251 and 252: arrows indicate the on-time truncat
Page 253 and 254: W. K. Woo and V. C. Sundar for assi
Page 255 and 256: size allows the electron affinity a
Page 257 and 258: II.THEORY OF ELECTRON TRANSFER BETW
Page 259 and 260: For the specific case of charge tra
Page 261 and 262: dominates, the mobility is often fi
Page 263 and 264: where the constant A and the temper
Page 265 and 266: components of modulation which are
Page 267 and 268: nanocrystals [41], understanding ph
Page 269 and 270: and ionization potential through tw
Page 271 and 272: quantum dots. Furthermore, because
Page 273 and 274: For many applications, a host mater
Page 275 and 276: form blends with morphologies that
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Figure 11 Photoluminescence efficie
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Figure 12 (a) Room-temperature PIA
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discussed briefly in Section IV. Ch
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dithiolates to thiol-terminated DNA
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Films of passivated CdSe nanocrysta
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Figure 16 Photocurrent action spect
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decay with stretched exponential ki
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siderably larger than might be esti
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dispersing CdSe nanocrystal chromop
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memory and charge storage effects [
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all) of the optically excited elect
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composites of nanocrystals and conj
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55. Asbury, J.B.; Hao, E.C.; Wang,
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108. Morgan, N.Y.; Leatherdale, C.A
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The approaches to fabrication of se
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Figure 1 Experimental realization o
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Due to this voltage division, the m
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Figure 3 Simulated tunneling spectr
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electron charging. In both positive
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Figure 5 shows the typical features
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Figure 7 Map of levels for InAs nan
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Figure 8 Scanning electron microsco
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D CB = 0.31 eV is thus obtained. On
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Figure 11 Correlation of optical an
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atomistic approach based on pseudop
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charging indicated that the tunneli
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capacitance values were also kept t
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could not be detected in the QD/DT/
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Figure 18 Tunneling conductanceF sp
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data in the inset of Fig. 19 repres
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corresponding to the s-like wave fu
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7. Grabert, H.; Devoret, M.H., Eds.
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66. Su, B.; Goldman, V.J.; Cunningh
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dimensional confinement are created
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Figure 1 Transmission electron micr
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The room-temperature absorption and
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narrower in samples with larger mea
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GaInP 2 QDs from a plot of the squa
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crystal, indicating lattice-matched
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Figure 5 Evolution of Stranski-Kras
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C. Efficient Anti-Stokes Photolumin
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Because HF treatment has been shown
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intensity of the PL when it is on a
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eV stems from recombining carriers
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Figure 16 Model to explain two-colo
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although this term is not rigorousl
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10 ps (about an order of magnitude
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electron relaxation is inhibited an
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QDs, the nature of the QD capping s
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QD solution. For an interdot distan
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emission spectra of the two individ
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Figure 23 Change of the PL intensit
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(viz. the absorbed light intensity)
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Figure 25Impact ionization in QDs.m
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prevent electron-hole recombination
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36. Miller, R.D.J.; McLendon, G.; N
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91. Vurgaftman, I.; Singh, J. Appl.
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139. Mićić, O.I.; Ahrenkiel, S.P.
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10Synthesis and Fabrication of Meta
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Figure 2 (A-C) Progression of HR-TE
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Figure 3 Schematic for gold nanocry
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Nanocrystal growth can occur by two
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on the other hand, provide an ensem
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Figure 6 (a) SAXS patterns for disp
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Figure 8 The gold nanocrystal film
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of the stabilizing ligand, and the
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successfully modeled the 2D island
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2. Steric Stabilization and a Soft
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are fully extended. Moving away fro
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Figure 11 High-resolution SEM image
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Figure 13 (A) Transmission electron
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function of the density of localize
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Figure 15 High-resolution SEM image
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thiol-capped nanocrystals [2]. The
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41. Ackerson, B.J. Nature 1993, 365
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with the effect of the particle com
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Figure 1a shows the surface plasmon
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Figure 2 (a) Ultraviolet-visible ab
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agents [34]. The short-wavelength b
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Figure 4 (a) Plot of the plasmon ab
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the framework of traditional Mie’
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show that effects due to the surrou
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is located at the position of the g
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Figure 8 Ultraviolet-visible absorp
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laser pulses while being mixed in t
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Figure 10 shows HR-TEM images of go
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final irradiation product. At the s
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following the laser excitation appe
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36. Papavassiliou, G.C. Prog. Solid
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particles to expand. Because the he
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was frequency doubled in a 1-mm B-
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Figure 2 Frequency of the acoustic
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Figure 3 Change in radius (DR/R) ve
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In this model, the electrons couple
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Figure 5 Transient bleach data for
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Figure 7 (a) Transient bleach data
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that the particles with >80% Au hav
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3. Del Fatti, N.; Valle´e, F.; Fly
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