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308765Ratio of wheat 4consumptionin urban areasto rural areas 3e21w ~ 30 40National per capita wheat consumption (kg/year)Figures 2. Relationship between <strong>the</strong> ratio of urban to rural per capitawbeat cQQsumption and national per capita wheat consumption int:ropical countries40U)35Cl)-I-.0 30ca c;25~ 0 20 .........0.....I:Cl)c;I-.Cl)ll.15105\\,Cassava.,".......-.- .........- ......-.............. ~...............................••...._..-.-...... ...........···Wheat Products----~ •••••• ......_-~-__ Maize..... -...._----------.._~-~--1000 2000 3000 4000 5000Per Capita Income (cruzeiros)Figure 3. Rice. cassava. wheat and maize as contributors to apparent percapita energy consumption according to income class. nor<strong>the</strong>ast Brazil.1975-76Source: T.T. Poleman. 1981. Quantifying <strong>the</strong> nutrition situation indeveloping countries. Food Research Institute Studies 1:1-58.
309These changing consumption patternsreflect <strong>the</strong> preference for bread as aconvenience food in urban areas. Lesstime and cooking fuel is also requiredfor <strong>the</strong> consumption of wheat-basedfoods (10,12,17).On <strong>the</strong> supply side, urbanization alsofavors wheat consumption based onimports. With plentiful supplies ofwheat in world markets, laggingdomestic production of staple foods andpoor infrastructure for transporting andmarketing domestic food supplies inurban areas, <strong>the</strong>re has been a naturaltendency to import wheat to feed urbanconsumers, especially in countrieswhere large cities are located on <strong>the</strong>coast.Bread pricesFood pricing policy in many tropicalcountries favors low bread pricesrelative to competing staples. Aboutone-quarter of <strong>the</strong> tropical countries forwhich we have price data subsidizedbread prices in <strong>the</strong> 1970s. Sri Lanka,Sudan, Ivory Coast, Ecuador and Brazilare all countries where bread susbsidieshave led to rapid increases in wheatconsumption (3,12). Many o<strong>the</strong>rcountries have imported wheat dutyfreeand at a significantly overvaluedexchange rate. If bread prices areconverted at <strong>the</strong> black marketexchange rate, nearly half of <strong>the</strong>tropical countries, expecially in Africaand Latin America, had declining realbread prices in <strong>the</strong> 1970s (3). In Africa,this largely reflects exchange ratepolicy while, in Latin America, acombination of overvalued exchangerates and increasing bread subsidies ina number of countries have led todeclining real prices.The result of <strong>the</strong>se policies is that, inmany countries, wheat flour and breadare cheap relative to locally producedfood staples, such as rice, maize andcassava. In several countries, e.g.,Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Sudan, Brazil andEcuador, wheat flour based on importedwheat was cheaper than locallyproduced coarse grains, such as maizeor sorghum. Food pricing policy in<strong>the</strong>se countries may explain half ormore of <strong>the</strong> growth of wheatconsumption. There are. of course,important exceptions. Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asiancountries such as Thailand, Burma and<strong>the</strong> Philippines maintain high breadprices. A number of countries, such asColombia, Senegal and Sri Lanka, havephased out bread subsidies and percapita wheat consumption has fallen.Food aidAlthough food aid has declined inimportance relative to commercial foodimports, it has been and remainsimportant to a number of tropicalcountries. Over 80% of food aid isprovided as wheat, and this proportionis only slightly lower for <strong>the</strong> tropicalcountries. Food aid has encouragedwheat consumption in <strong>the</strong>se countriesby reducing <strong>the</strong> price of wheatproducts, establishing a milling andbaking industry and developingconsumer tastes and preferences forwheat (9,19). The development ofmarkets for commercial wheat is stillan important objective of food aid andour cross-country regression analysisindicates that it has been relativelysuccessful. Sudan, Sri Lanka, Somaliaand Mauritania are examples of tropicalcountries that receive substantialamounts of food aid and have relativelyhigh per capita consumption of wheat.Government PolicyAlternatives with Respect toWheat in <strong>the</strong> TropicsInterest in wheat production in <strong>the</strong>tropical countries reflects a desire topromote greater self-sufficiency in food.Many governments have seen <strong>the</strong> rapid
Page 2 and 3:
The International Maize and Wheat I
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3AcknowledgementsThe Tropical Wheat
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5Wheat Production in Bangladesh: It
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7Chemical Control ofHelmtn.thosport
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1 9PrefaceThe international worksho
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uToluca, a high-elevation station a
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13In Bangladesh. many farmers' fiel
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global cooperation that permits apo
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17Recognizing the
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19With UNDP assistance. CIMMYTexpan
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4 21Introduction to the</st
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23grain-filling stages are required
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Table 1. Countries growing whut in
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27Month of sowing and month afterfl
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29. Table 3. Correlation coefficien
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31Earliness-Earliness is needed if
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33requires more than technical solu
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3~from other crops
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37Table 2. Advanced lines selected
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39If Bol1via does not radically cha
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41Table 5. Water efficiency utiliza
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4320-year period. Also indicated ar
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Table 2. (Con't)Cross and pedigreeN
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47respectively. for central AlaJuel
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49Table 1. Climatological data, Fra
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51Wheat Research in the</st
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53Table 3. Average yield of best wh
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Selection of Wheats forSubtropical
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Nigeria is high temperature. South
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59Wheat Production in Bangladesh:It
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61Research PrioritiesVarietal devel
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63Wheat Improvement Programsfor <st
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65In India, a series of wheat varie
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67in temperature are capable of cau
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69primarily due to a lack of financ
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71Triticale ImprovementRegular bree
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73The climate in this region is war
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75Recently, the pe
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77Variety improvement must also bec
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79those areas that are suitable for
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Wheat Growing in the</stron
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83Thailand Winter Cereals ProgramP.
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Many farmers are now exploring <str
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87crop is present, and known. at pl
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6 ~89Contributed PapersI. BreedingB
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91area at flowering. Vegetative vig
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93of the plants se
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Screening for tropical adaptationTh
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97Table 3. Best advanced lines of b
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99Table 4. Highest yielding advance
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101very late, high temperatures at
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103hence, select for drought tolera
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106References1. Anonymous. 1972. Wh
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107Breeding Wheats for Heatand Drou
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109unit area. However, looking at s
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111Identifying Wheats Adapted to Mo
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113standard date for sowing. In spi
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115transferred into high-yielding a
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117Table 1. Chemical properties of
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119• Resistance to shattering•
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121References1. Araujo. J.E.G. 1949
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123hours of sunlight monthly. Altho
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125Screening Wheats for QualityA. A
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127Wide Crosses and New Genesfor Wh
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129The introduction of alien geneti
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131averaged about 2.5 tonslha. Howe
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133must also demonstrate a yieldadv
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135II. Diseases and Disease Control
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137beaker with 200 ml sterilized di
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139Table 1. (Cont'd)Resistance reac
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141Identification ofSources of Resi
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143References1. Adlakha, K, RD. Wil
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Breeding Wheats with Resistanceto H
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147conditions. whereby infectionper
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149CIMMYT Methods for Screening Whe
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151Selection under Field Conditions
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153February. Environmental conditio
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156Each trla1 had two replications
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157References1. De Milliano. W.A.J.
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159Shinchunaga and descendants). se
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161Wheat Breedingfor Scab Resistanc
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163References1. Andersen. A.L. 1948
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16526. Luzzardi. G.C.. C.R. Pierobo
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18748. Nisikado. Y. 1958. Studies o
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Head Scab Screening Methods Used at
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171Wheat spikes are spray-inoculate
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173Reference.1. Bekele. G.T. 1984.
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1'71SThe species and varieties with
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177suspension. This method has prov
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179How the pathoge
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18112. Takegami, S. 1961. Proceedin
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183Documented Foot RotDlseaBes in W
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185References1. Anderson. N.A. 1982
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187against leaf rust by the
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-188Distribution and Importance ofR
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191Surprisingly. little or no stem
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193temperatures. but this differenc
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19~14. Lapis. D.B. and M.C. Kamatoy
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197According to a new criterionesta
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199Loss in yield is directly propor
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Chemical Control ofHelminthosportum
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203H. sattvum on foliage and heads
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205Table 1. Mean number of lesions
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20'7Table 4. Effect on lelf spot in
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209III. AgronomyPhysiological Limit
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Table 1. Actual and pouible wheat1l
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213Table 2. Wheat yield determinati
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216unpublished). A role of thumb de
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217seasonally and cloudiness persis
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219developmental periods. to around
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221Growth at high temperaturesEarly
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CertainlY crop growth rates in exce
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225rice, another C
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227105% that of C306 for th
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22913. Fischer. RA.. I. Aguilar. R
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Soil Management as an Alternativefo
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233water content in the</st
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23~Tolerance to soil aciditySoil ac
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237applied without increasing <stro
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The Cerrados: Future WheatProductio
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241there is utiliz
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243• Ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2S04]
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245Physical Soil ProblemsThe soils
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247program. these
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249References1. Commisao Norte Bras
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251was rather poor
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253Tolerant vartettes-The yield ofv
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255Alternative locations-An evaluat
Page 259 and 260: 257Wheat Production Constraintsand
Page 261 and 262: 259numerical grading which showed <
Page 263 and 264: 261directed towards minimum loss of
Page 265 and 266: '.2636. Cheng, C.P. 1977. Wheatprod
Page 267 and 268: Wheat in Rice...BasedCropping Syste
Page 269 and 270: 267Rice varietiesAs mentioned above
Page 271 and 272: 269A problem of declining yields ha
Page 273 and 274: 271_.z.:::-~:J.."•._,:.\--_.r+++v
Page 275 and 276: 273Agronomic Practices and Problems
Page 277 and 278: 275water percolation in rice. For w
Page 279 and 280: 277Rice-Wheat Cropping Systemsin So
Page 281 and 282: 279Table 1. Yield and economic retu
Page 283 and 284: 281was higher with the</str
Page 285 and 286: 283to compete with othe</st
Page 287 and 288: for tropical environments. Highesta
Page 289 and 290: 287can be used. The computer is a u
Page 291 and 292: 289The computer has become a valuab
Page 293 and 294: 291IV. SeedWheat Seed Production,St
Page 295 and 296: 293On average, no more that 100 mm
Page 297 and 298: 295Storage in 20-liter biscuit or k
Page 299 and 300: Production, Storageand Marketing of
Page 301 and 302: 299true to type. are selected and t
Page 303 and 304: 301discussed and ascertained; <stro
Page 305 and 306: 303V. EconomicsWheat in the
Page 307 and 308: 305than in Asia and Africa (about 1
Page 309: 307wheat consumption). However, <st
Page 313 and 314: 311Finally. it should be clarified
Page 315 and 316: 313in areas where wheat yields arer
Page 317 and 318: 31510. FAO. 1982. The bread economy
Page 319 and 320: 317Lowlands withinadequate dry-seas
Page 321 and 322: 319Table 1. Private and social prof
Page 323 and 324: The Local-Use Approach to t
Page 325 and 326: 323fired oven has been used at oneu
Page 327 and 328: 325ControlliDg fungal diseasesThe i
Page 329 and 330: The Relative Priority andEconomics
Page 331 and 332: 329Comparative MarketPrices of Stap
Page 333 and 334: 331References1. Agricultural Extens
Page 335 and 336: Table 1. Area, average yield and to
Page 337 and 338: Table 3. Annual domestic wheat prod
Page 339 and 340: 337Table 5. Financial costs of whea
Page 341 and 342: Comments'D.L. WiDkelmaDll, DIrector
Page 343 and 344: 7341------_1Closing Remarks, <stron
Page 345 and 346: 343Table 1. Probleml for th
Page 347 and 348: 345While efforts to develop wheatge
Page 349 and 350: 347Appendix IIWheat Pests and Disea
Page 351 and 352: 349Appendix IIIParticipants. <stron
Page 353 and 354: 351NigeriaMr. Ahmed M. FalakiResear
Page 355 and 356: 353CIMMYT Staff. MexicoMr. Robert D
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