World’s Soil Resources

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India’s population is expected to surpass China’s, to become the most populous country in the world. Nigeria’s population is expected to surpass the United States population in 2045 to become the world’s third most populous country. Nigeria’s population is likely to rival that of China by the end of the century (Table 5.2). Over the period 2013–2100, eight countries are expected to account for over half of the world’s projected population increase: Nigeria, India, the United Republic of Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Niger, Uganda, Ethiopia and the United States of America. On the other hand, Europe’s population is projected to decline, since fertility rates are far below the level for replacement of population in the long run. As fertility decreases and life expectancy rises, population ageing is a challenge for Europe (UN, 2014). Other developing countries with young populations but lower fertility (e.g. China, Brazil and India) are also likely to face challenges of an ageing society by the end of this century (Gerland et al., 2014). Region Area 2013 Percent Density 2050 % of world % Change (millions of Population of world (p/km²) population. pop. 2013-2050 km²) (millions) population (projected) Asia 31.9 4 298 60.0 135 5 164 54.1 20 Africa 31.0 1 110 15.5 36 2 393 25.1 115 Europe 23.0 742 10.4 32 709 7.4 -4 LAC 20.5 617 8.6 30 782 8.2 27 North America 21.8 355 5.0 16 446 4.7 26 Oceania 8.6 38 0.5 4 57 0.6 48 World 136.8 7 162 100.0 52 9 551 100 33 Table 5.1 World population by region Country Population Country Population Country Projected Country Proj. Popul. in 1950 in 2013 Population 2100 in 2050 China 544 China 1 386 India 1 620 India 1 547 India 376 India 1 252 China 1 385 China 1 086 United States 158 United States 320 Nigeria 440 Nigeria 914 Russian Federation 103 Indonesia 250 United States 401 United States 462 Japan 82 Brazil 200 Indonesia 321 Indonesia 315 Indonesia 73 Pakistan 182 Pakistan 271 Tanzania 276 Germany 70 Nigeria 174 Brazil 231 Pakistan 263 Brazil 54 Bangladesh 157 Bangladesh 202 Dem. Rep of Congo 262 United Kingdom 51 Russian Federation 143 Ethiopia 188 Ethiopia 243 Italy 46 Japan 127 Philippines 157 Uganda 205 Table 5.2 The ten most populous countries 1950, 2013, 2050 and 2100 (population in millions). Source: United Nations, 2014. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Drivers of global soil change 90
5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with the rate of population increase is the rising rate of urbanization. According to the United Nations, by 2014 more people were living in urban areas (54 percent) than in rural areas. The urbanization trend is expected to continue in all regions, and by 2050, 66 percent of the world’s population is projected to be urban. Today some of the most urbanized regions are Northern America (82 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (80 percent) and Europe (73 percent). However, Africa and Asia are now the fastest urbanizing regions, with the share of the population urbanized expected to rise from today’s 40 and 48 percent respectively to 56 and 64 percent by 2050. Three countries together are expected to account for 37 percent of the growth of the world’s urban population between 2014 and 2050: India (adding 404 million), China (adding 292 million) and Nigeria (adding 212 million). Whereas in the past mega-cities were located in more developed regions, today’s large cities are principally found in lower income countries. Since 1990 the number of these mega-cities has nearly tripled globally; and by 2030, the world is projected to have 41 global agglomerations, housing more than 10 million inhabitants each. In developing countries, the competition between demand for agricultural land and the needs of growing cities is a mounting challenge (Jones et al., 2013). The rural population globally is now close to 3.4 billion but is expected to decline to 3.2 billion by 2050. Africa and Asia are home to nearly 90 percent of the world’s rural population. India has the world’s largest rural population (857 million), followed by China (635 million). Rural/urban migration continues to feed urban growth, causing environmental changes including effects on land use and soils. Policy and poverty also drive the threats to land and soils. Many rural poor live under regimes of weak land policy and insecure tenure systems. They often farm marginal lands of low agricultural productivity, typically employing traditional farming methods. This may aggravate soil degradation and biodiversity decline, with resulting yield losses and food insecurity (Jones et al., 2013; Barbier, 2013). In addition, land grabs may lead to eviction of farming families, for whom rural to urban migration may be the only option, so accelerating the pace of urbanization (Holdinghausen, 2015). 5.2 | Education, cultural values and social equity Education influences decisions regarding land use and land management. Farmers’ decisions result from many factors, including incentives, access to capital and risk management, but also from knowledge and level of education, all of which may affect land use and management practices (MA, 2005). Land use and management is dependent on the sum total of all decisions taken by individual farmers of different education and gender groups in a community (IAASTD, 2009). Women play a key role in agriculture. They represent 43 percent of the agricultural labour force world-wide, ranging from around 20 percent in Latin America to 50 percent in parts of Africa and Asia (FAO, 2011b). Women are responsible for half of the world’s food production, providing between 60 and 80 percent of the food in most developing countries (World Bank/FAO/IFAD, 2009). However, evidence shows that women still own less land and have smaller landholdings with generally poor soil quality. Improving women’s access to land and secure tenure can have direct impacts on farm productivity and in the long run improve household welfare (FAO, 2013). FAO’s Gender and Land Rights Database (2010) suggests that less than one quarter of agricultural land holdings in developing countries are operated by women. Latin America and the Caribbean have the largest mean share of female agricultural land holders, exceeding 25 percent in Chile, Ecuador and Panama. In North Africa and West Asia, female landholders represent fewer than five percent of the owners. In sub- Saharan Africa the average rate is 15 percent, although there are wide variations within the region, from less than five percent in Mali to over 30 percent in Botswana, Cape Verde and Malawi (Figure 5.1). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Drivers of global soil change 91
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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Page 83 and 84: Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
Page 85 and 86: 3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
Page 87 and 88: 3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
Page 89 and 90: References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92: Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
Page 93 and 94: 75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
Page 95 and 96: or increasing forest areas. Between
Page 97 and 98: Degrading land covers approximately
Page 99 and 100: 70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
Page 101 and 102: A meta-analysis of 57 publications
Page 103 and 104: the nutrient inputs remain in the c
Page 105 and 106: Livestock density Livestock product
Page 107 and 108: 4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
Page 109 and 110: Impact of land take Land take, by i
Page 111 and 112: Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
Page 113 and 114: The formation of sulfidic material
Page 115 and 116: are however strongly dependent on t
Page 117 and 118: Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
Page 119 and 120: Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
Page 121 and 122: Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
Page 123 and 124: Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
Page 125 and 126: Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
Page 127 and 128: Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
Page 129 and 130: Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
Page 131: 5 | Drivers of global soil change D
Page 135 and 136: Large areas of arable land have bee
Page 137 and 138: most affected zone with 15 million
Page 139 and 140: (Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
Page 141 and 142: MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
Page 143 and 144: 6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
Page 145 and 146: Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
Page 147 and 148: High soil erosion rates will also h
Page 149 and 150: Near-surface soil water content has
Page 151 and 152: 6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
Page 153 and 154: where the drainage in the 1960’s
Page 155 and 156: 6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
Page 157 and 158: Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
Page 159 and 160: Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
Page 161 and 162: 6.3 | Soil contamination status and
Page 163 and 164: and Uruguay. The number of exposed
Page 165 and 166: products increase soil acidity (Bar
Page 167 and 168: availability and inhibit plant grow
Page 169 and 170: In several Asian countries, a blend
Page 171 and 172: underlines the need for global-scal
Page 173 and 174: Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
Page 175 and 176: Figure 6.11 Major components of the
Page 177 and 178: Within the same continent, large va
Page 179 and 180: Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
Page 181 and 182: is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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