World’s Soil Resources

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feature prominently in policy or programmes. Following the food crisis in 2008, policy makers at the international level began to appreciate that soils were finite and an important factor that had to be considered in the debate on food security. Within the framework of UNCCD’s ‘Zero Net Land Degradation’, discussions were initiated about the need for quantitative targets and indicators to measure soil degradation (UNCCD, 2012). Concerns over food insecurity, water scarcity, climate change and increasing pressures on limited land and water resources led to much greater dialogue, advocacy and partnerships supporting integrated approaches to this complex set of issues (Beddington et al., 2012; Steffen et al., 2015). The UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), took place in June 2012, two decades after the Earth Summit. In the resulting document, The Future We Want, the international community agreed on the need to achieve a land degradation neutral world in the context of sustainable development (UN, 2012). The conference also initiated the process of developing universal Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). All of the above developments relating to soils and land degradation are framed by the broader issue of climate change. Again, there is a long institutional history but it is useful to start with the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The IPCC provides the world with scientific and technical information on climate change and its socio-economic impacts. The next major development was adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 by the UNFCCC. The Protocol, which entered into force in 2005, committed industrialized countries to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). The Protocol started as a non-binding agreement but later progressed to legally binding agreements on emission reduction targets. The Protocol is of great importance for soils and land management because soils are important carbon sinks. The Protocol recognized opportunities for better management of carbon stores and for the enhancement of carbon sequestration in forestry and agriculture. There was thus clear recognition that soil management can be a vehicle to achieve climate goals – and conversely, that soils can be managed to avoid the loss of carbon through land degradation. Because of the climate system’s sensitivity to soil processes, soilrelated issues are set to attract increasing attention in future climate agreements. In recent years, FAO and its member countries have made significant progress in supporting strategies and policies to improve global governance of soil resources. In order to meet the need for a multilateral agreement focusing specifically on soil challenges, and to advocate for sustainable soil and land management at global level, the Global Soil Partnership1 (GSP) was proposed by FAO and the EU and then established in September 2011. The GSP strives to raise awareness among decision makers on the role of soil resources in relation to food security, climate change, and the provision of ecosystem services (Montanarella and Vargas, 2012). Technical and scientific guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils (ITPS). The ITPS complements related scientific advisory panels including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Intergovernmental Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), and the UNCCD’s Science-Policy Interface (SPI). The ITPS has been key to the development of the Plans of Action for the five pillars of the Global Soil Partnership (Table 8.2). It has also been engaged in the development of the Sustainable Development Goals and the initiation of formal reporting mechanisms, including the present book. An indication of the emerging priority accorded to soils and a measure of the impact of the GSP was the declaration by the United Nations General Assembly of 2015 as the International Year of Soils. 1 www.fao.org/globalsoilpartnership Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Governance and policy responses to soil change 226
Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 1988 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) UN Conference on Environment and Development Rio Declaration Agenda 21 1992 Global Environmental Facility UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) UN Framework to Combat Climate Change (UNFCCC) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1997 Kyoto Protocol 2000 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2008 UNCCD’s Zero Net Land Degradation 2011 Global Soil Partnership initiated (FAO/EU) 2012 Rio+20 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Post-2015 Development Agenda Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils (ITPS) of the GSP 2013 Updated FAO World Soil Charter Land and Soils integrated in the Open Working Group of the Sustainable Development Goals Regional Soil Partnerships of the GSP 2015 International Year of Soils declared by the UN General Assembly Table 8.1 Recent Milestones in soil governance and sustainable development Pillar No. 1 2 3 4 5 Action Promote sustainable management of soil resources for soil protection, conservation and sustainable productivity Encourage investment, technical cooperation, policy, education awareness and extension in soil Promote targeted soil research and development focusing on identified gaps and priorities and on synergies with related productive, environmental and social development actions Enhance the quantity and quality of soil data and information: data collection, analysis, validation, reporting, monitoring and integration with other disciplines Harmonize methods, measurements and indicators for the sustainable management and protection of soil resources Table 8.2 The 5 Pillars of Action of the Global Soil Partnership. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Governance and policy responses to soil change 227
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
Page 217 and 218: One approach to maintaining soil he
Page 219 and 220: Author Database Used Extent Estimat
Page 221 and 222: salinization. Safe design and opera
Page 223 and 224: The second limitation to prediction
Page 225 and 226: Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
Page 227 and 228: soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
Page 229 and 230: extremes several weeks in advance (
Page 231 and 232: The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
Page 235 and 236: The concept of the critical load of
Page 237 and 238: as it indicates that management and
Page 239 and 240: 10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
Page 241 and 242: phenomena such as the onset of mass
Page 243 and 244: Although poorly explored, diversity
Page 245 and 246: affect the health of humans and ani
Page 247 and 248: Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250: Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252: Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254: Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256: Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258: Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262: Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
Page 263 and 264: UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 265 and 266: 8 | Governance and policy responses
Page 267: contemporary challenge for policy m
Page 271 and 272: Ensure integrated management of pes
Page 273 and 274: 8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
Page 275 and 276: while in areas with fertile soils t
Page 277 and 278: In New Zealand, there are few regul
Page 279 and 280: The SEEA Central Framework identifi
Page 281 and 282: EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283 and 284: World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
Page 285 and 286: 9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
Page 287 and 288: Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
Page 289 and 290: The soils are strongly weathered an
Page 291 and 292: It exposes the soil to the erosive
Page 293 and 294: In many African cultures, harvestin
Page 295 and 296: Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
Page 297 and 298: Poverty: General poverty of the far
Page 299 and 300: Considering that over 80 percent of
Page 301 and 302: Extent of SOM decline in the region
Page 303 and 304: Many farmers do not follow recommen
Page 305 and 306: 9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
Page 307 and 308: Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
Page 309 and 310: management, it is important to note
Page 311 and 312: From 2006, several further national
Page 313 and 314: Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
Page 315 and 316: Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
Page 317 and 318: Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368:
Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550:
The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
Page 593 and 594:
PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596:
PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598:
GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600:
STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602:
ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610:
UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624:
ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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