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Figure 9.10 Broad soil patterns of South Africa. Source: Land Type Survey Staff, 2003. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 268 in Africa South of the Sahara
From 2006, several further national studies were conducted to assess the status of soils, land use trends, land degradation and sustainable land management implementation in the country. Results are summarized in this section. There is much evidence of mismanagement of soil resources which has led to widespread erosion by both wind and water, loss of soil fertility, compaction and acidification. National land degradation assessment Since land use is considered the single most important driver of land (and soil) degradation, land degradation assessments were conducted based on land use categories. For this purpose, a national stratification map was developed for South Africa based on amendments to the Land Use System Approach as described by Nachtergaele and Petri (2008) as well as by Pretorius (2009). On this basis, the stratification map adopted the following 18 land use categories: • Desert • Azonal vegetation • Savanna • Forest • Grassland • Nama-Karoo • Indian Ocean Coastal Belt • Succulent Karoo • Fynbos • Albany Thicket • Open Water • Urban • Cultivated – commercial – rain-fed • Cultivated – irrigated • Cultivated – subsistence – rain-fed • Plantations • Mines • Protected areas By integrating the local municipality boundaries with those of land use, a total of 2 447 unique units were derived for further assessment, as illustrated in Figure 9.11. Land degradation and sustainable land management implementation were then assessed in each of the 2 447 mapping units. The assessment was carried out from 2008 to 2010 and was based on a participatory approach as part of a Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) project. The approach relied strongly on the inputs from a range of experienced contributing specialists and land users who were conversant with the areas to be assessed. Data capturing was done through a series of 33 Participatory Expert Assessment (PEA) Workshops throughout the country, involving 728 contributing specialists (Wiese, Lindeque and Villiers, 2011). In terms of soil, the main forms of degradation at national level were soil erosion by water, biological degradation and chemical soil degradation. For soil erosion, sheet and gully erosion were considered the most serious threats, with river or stream bank erosion and off-site sedimentation considered less critical. Soil acidification and salinization were also highlighted, although their occurrence was more localized and area-specific. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 269 in Africa South of the Sahara
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262: Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
Page 263 and 264: UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 265 and 266: 8 | Governance and policy responses
Page 267 and 268: contemporary challenge for policy m
Page 269 and 270: Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
Page 271 and 272: Ensure integrated management of pes
Page 273 and 274: 8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
Page 275 and 276: while in areas with fertile soils t
Page 277 and 278: In New Zealand, there are few regul
Page 279 and 280: The SEEA Central Framework identifi
Page 281 and 282: EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283 and 284: World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
Page 285 and 286: 9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
Page 287 and 288: Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
Page 289 and 290: The soils are strongly weathered an
Page 291 and 292: It exposes the soil to the erosive
Page 293 and 294: In many African cultures, harvestin
Page 295 and 296: Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
Page 297 and 298: Poverty: General poverty of the far
Page 299 and 300: Considering that over 80 percent of
Page 301 and 302: Extent of SOM decline in the region
Page 303 and 304: Many farmers do not follow recommen
Page 305 and 306: 9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
Page 307 and 308: Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
Page 309: management, it is important to note
Page 313 and 314: Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
Page 315 and 316: Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
Page 317 and 318: Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
Page 319 and 320: Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
Page 321 and 322: Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
Page 323 and 324: Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
Page 325 and 326: Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
Page 327 and 328: Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
Page 329 and 330: 10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 331 and 332: Figure 10.1 Length of the available
Page 333 and 334: Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
Page 335 and 336: 10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
Page 337 and 338: In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
Page 339 and 340: 10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
Page 341 and 342: practices. On low slopes, agronomic
Page 343 and 344: (Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
Page 345 and 346: in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
Page 347 and 348: Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
Page 349 and 350: 10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
Page 351 and 352: Peat fire is another important proc
Page 353 and 354: An agricultural soil monitoring pro
Page 355 and 356: The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
Page 357 and 358: Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
Page 359 and 360: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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