Ciais P., Reichstein, M., Viovy, N., Granier, N.A., Ogée, J., Allard, V., Buchmann, N., Aubinet, M., Bernhofer, C., Carrara, A., Chevallier, F., De Noblet, N., Friend, A., Friedlingstein, P., Grünwald, T., Heinesch, B., Keronen, P., Knohl, A., Krinner, G., Loustau, D., Manca, G., Matteucci, G., Miglietta, F., Ourcival, J.M., Pilegaard, K., Rambal, S., Seufert, G., Soussana, J.F., Sanz, M.J., Schulze, E.D., Vesala, T. & Valentini, R. 2005. Unprecedented European-level Reduction in Primary Productivity caused by the 2003 Heat and Drought. Nature, 437: 529-533. Clavero, M., Villero, D. & Brotons, L. 2011. Climate Change or Land Use Dynamics: Do we know what climate change indicators indicate? PlosOne, 6(4): e 18581. Coates, J. 2013. Build it back better: Deconstructing food security for improved measurement and action. Global Food Security, 2: 188-194. Cole, D.W. & Rapp, M. 1981. Elemental cycling in forest ecosystems. In D.E. Reichle, ed., Dynamic properties of forest ecosystems. pp 341–409. UK, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Compton, J.E., Harrison, J.A., Dennis, R.L., Greaver, T.L., Hill, B.H., Jordan, S.J., Walker, H. & Campbell, H.V. 2011. Ecosystem services altered by human changes in the nitrogen cycle: a new perspective for United States decision making. Ecology Letters, 14: 804-815. Conant, R.T., Ryan, M.G., Ågren, G.I., Birge, H.E., Bradford, M.A., Davidson, E.A., Eliasson, P.E., Evans, S.E., Frey, S.D., Giardina, C.P., Hopkins, F.M., Hyvönen, R., Kirschbaum, M.U.F., Lavallee, J.M., Leifeld, J., Parton, W.J., Steinweg, J.M., Wallenstein, M.D. & Wetterstedt, J.A.M. 2011. Temperature and soil carbon decomposition – synthesis of current knowledge and a way forward. Global Change Biology, 17: 3392-3404. Conley, D.J., Paerl, H.W., Howarth, R.W., Boesch, D.F., Seitzinger, S.P., Havens, K.E., Lancelot, C. & Likens, G.E. 2009. Controlling eutrophication: nitrogen and phosphorus. Science, 323: 1014-1015. Cordell, D. & White, S. 2010. Securing a sustainable phosphorus future for Australia. Farm Policy Journal, 7: 1–17. Corti, T., Wuest, M., Bresch, D. & Seneviratne, S.I. 2011. Drought-induced building damages from simulations at regional scale. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11: 3335–3342. Creswell, A. 2012. Warning as three die from soil disease. The Australian. Article of February 15, 2012. (Also available at http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/warning-as-three-die-from-soil-disease/storye6frg8y 6-1226271161811) Crosson, P. 2003. Global consequences of land degradation: An economic perspective. In K. Wiebe, ed. Land Quality, Agricultural Productivity, and Food Security. pp. 36-46. UK, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar. Crutzen, P.J. 2002. Geology of mankind. Nature, 415: 23-23. Chandler, K.R. & Chappell, N.A. 2008. Influence of individual oak (Quercus robur) trees on saturated hydraulic conductivity. Forest Ecology and Management, 256(5): 1222-1229. Chen, J. 2007. Rapid urbanization in China: A real challenge to soil protection and food security. Catena, 69: 1-15. Chen, J. 2012. An original discovery: Selenium deficiency and Keshan disease (an epidemic heart disease). Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr., 21: 320-326. Churchman, G.J. & Landa, E.R. (eds.). 2014. The <strong>Soil</strong> Underfoot: Infinite Possibilities for a Finite Resource. CRC Press. D’Costa, V.M., McGrann, K.M., Hughes, D.W. & Wright, G.D. 2006. Sampling the antibiotic resistome. Science, 311: 374-377. Dai, Q., Shrubsole, M.J., Ness, R.M., Schlundt, D., Cai, Q., Smalley, W.E., Li, M., Shyr, Y. & Zheng, W. 2007: The relation of magnesium and calcium intakes and a genetic polymorphism in the magnesium transporter to colorectal neoplasia risk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 86: 743-751. Status of the <strong>World’s</strong> <strong>Soil</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 206
Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servranckx, R., Fromm, M., Eloranta, E.W., Razenkov, I.A., James, P., Shulski, M., Forster, C. & Stohl, A. 2006. A case study of pyro-convection using transport model and remote sensing data. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 6: 173-185. Davidson, E.A., David, M.B., Galloway, J.N., Goodale, C.L., Haeuber, R., Harrison, J. A., Howarth, R.W., Jaynes, D.B., Lowrance, R.R., Nolan, B.T., Peel, J.L., Pinder, R.W., Porter, E., Snyder, C.S., Townsend, A.R. & Ward, M.H. 2012. Excess Nitrogen in the U.S. Environment: Trends, Risks, and Solutions. Ecological Society of America, Issues in Ecology, 15: 1-16. Davin, E.L., Seneviratne, S.I., Ciais, P., Olioso, A., & Wang, T. 2014. Preferential cooling of hot extremes from cropland albedo management. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 111(27): 9757-9761. De Groot, R.S., Wilson, M.A. & Boumans, R.M.J. 2002. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecological Economics, 41: 393-408. De Jeu, R., Wagner, W., Homes, T.R.H., Dolman, A.J., van de Giesen, N.C. & Friesen, J. 2008. Global soil moisture patterns observed by space borne microwave radiometers and scatterometers. Surv. Geophys., 29(4- 5): 399-420. De Vries, F.T. & Bardgett, R.D. 2012a. Plant-microbial linkages and ecosystem N retention: lessons for sustainable agriculture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10: 425-432. De Vries, F.T., Bloem, J., Quirk, H., Stevens, C.J., Bol, R., & Bardgett, R.D. 2012b. Extensive Management Promotes Plant and Microbial Nitrogen Retention in Temperate Grassland. PLoS ONE, 7: e 51201. De Vries, F.T., Liiri, M., Bjørnlund, L., Bowker, M., Christensen, S., Setälä, H., & Bardgett, R.D. 2012c. Land use alters the resistance and resilience of soil food webs to drought. Nature Climate Change, 2: 276-280. De Vries, F.T., Thébault, E., Liiri, M., Birkhofer, K., Tsiafouli, M.A., Bjørnlund, L., Jørgensen, H.B., Brady, M.V., Christensen, S., de Ruiter, P.C., d’Hertefeldt, T., Frouz, J., Hedlund, K., Hemerik, L., Hol, W.H.G., Hotes, S., Mortimer, S.R., Setälä, H., Sgardelis, S.P., Uteseny, K., van der Putten, W.H., Wolters, V. & Bardgett, R.D. 2013a. <strong>Soil</strong> food web properties explain ecosystem services across European land use systems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110: 14296–14301. De Vries, W., Groenenberg, J.E., Lofts, S., Tipping, E. & Posch, M. 2013b. Critical loads of heavy metals for soils. In B.J. Alloway, ed. Heavy metals in soils: trace metals and metalloids in soils and their bioavailability. 3 rd edition. pp. 211-237. The Netherlands, Dordrecht, Springer. 587 pp. Deguines, N., Jono, C., Baude, M., Henry, M., Julliard, R. & Fontaine, C. 2014. Large- scale trade- off between agricultural intensification and crop pollination services. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 12: 212-217. Del Mar A.M., Torrecillas, E., Torres, P., Garcı´a-Orenes, F. & Roldan, A. 2012. Long-Term Effects of Irrigation with Waste Water on <strong>Soil</strong> AM Fungi Diversity and Microbial Activities: The Implications for Agro- Ecosystem Resilience. PLoS ONE, 7(10): e 47680. Delgado, J.A., Groffman, P.M., Nearing, M.A., Goddard, T., Reicosky, D., Lal, R., Kitchen, N.R., Rice, C.W., Towery, D. & Salon, P. 2011.Conservation practices to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Journal of <strong>Soil</strong> and Water Conservation, 66(4): 118-129. Delucchi, M.A. 2011. A conceptual framework for estimating the climate impacts of land-use change due to energy crop programs. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35(1): 2337-2360. Den Biggelaar, C., Lal, R., Eswaran, H., Breneman, V.E. & Reich, P.F. 2003. Crop losses to soil erosion at regional and global scales: evidence from plot-level and GIS data. In K. Wiebe, ed. Land Quality, Agricultural Productivity, and Food Security. pp. 262-279. UK, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar. Dentener, F.J., Carmichael, G.R., Zhang, Y., Lelieved, J. & Crutzen, P.J. 1996. Role of mineral aerosol as a reactive surface in the global atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101: 22869-22890. Status of the <strong>World’s</strong> <strong>Soil</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 207
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
- Page 197 and 198: Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
- Page 199 and 200: Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
- Page 201 and 202: Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
- Page 203 and 204: Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
- Page 205 and 206: Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
- Page 207 and 208: United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
- Page 209 and 210: Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
- Page 211 and 212: 7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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- Page 215 and 216: 0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
- Page 217 and 218: One approach to maintaining soil he
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- Page 221 and 222: salinization. Safe design and opera
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- Page 225 and 226: Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
- Page 227 and 228: soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
- Page 229 and 230: extremes several weeks in advance (
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- Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
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- Page 239 and 240: 10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
- Page 241 and 242: phenomena such as the onset of mass
- Page 243 and 244: Although poorly explored, diversity
- Page 245 and 246: affect the health of humans and ani
- Page 247: Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
- Page 251 and 252: Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
- Page 253 and 254: Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
- Page 255 and 256: Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
- Page 257 and 258: Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
- Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
- Page 261 and 262: Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
- Page 263 and 264: UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
- Page 265 and 266: 8 | Governance and policy responses
- Page 267 and 268: contemporary challenge for policy m
- Page 269 and 270: Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
- Page 271 and 272: Ensure integrated management of pes
- Page 273 and 274: 8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
- Page 275 and 276: while in areas with fertile soils t
- Page 277 and 278: In New Zealand, there are few regul
- Page 279 and 280: The SEEA Central Framework identifi
- Page 281 and 282: EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
- Page 283 and 284: World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
- Page 285 and 286: 9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
- Page 287 and 288: Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
- Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
- Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
- Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
- Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
- Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
- Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
- Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
- Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza