World’s Soil Resources

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Figure 14.4 | Risk of soil salinization in Canada 2011. Source: Clearwater et al., 2015. | 452 Figure 14.5 | Risk of water erosion in Canada 2011. Source: Clearwater et al., 2015. | 461 Figure 14.6 | Risk of wind erosion in Canada 2011. Source: Clearwater et al., 2015. | 462 Figure 14.7 | Soil organic carbon change in Canada 201. Source: Clearwater et al., 2015. | 463 Figure 14.8 | Residual soil N in Canada 2011. Source: Clearwater et al., 2015. | 465 Figure 14.9 | Indicator of risk of water contamination by phosphorus (IROWC-P) in Canada in 2011. Source: Clearwater et al., 2015. | 466 Figure 15.1 | Nations in the Southwest Pacific region and the extent of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesian cultures. Figure based on base map imagery: exclusive economic zone boundaries (EEZ)v 8 2014, Natural Earth 11 3.2.0 | 478 Figure 15.2 | Change in the percentage area of all land prepared for crops and pastures under different tillage practices in Australia, 1996-2010 Source: SOE, 2011. | 486 Figure 15.3 | (a) Trends in winter rainfall in south-western Australia for the period 1900–2012. Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology 1 . The 15-year running average is shown by the black line. (b) Annual mean temperature anomaly time series map for south-western Australia (1910–2012), using a baseline annual temperature (1961–1990) of 16.3 °C. The 15-year running average is shown by the black line. | 501 Figure 15.4 | Percentage of sites sampled (2005–12) with soil pH at 0–10 cm depth below the established target of pHCa 5.5 (left) and the critical pHCa 5.0 (right). Grey indicates native vegetation and reserves. Source: Gazey, Andrew and Griffin, 2013. | 502 Figure 15.5 | Agricultural lime sales 2005–12 in the south-west of Western Australia based on data for 85–90 percent of the market. | 503 Figure 15.6 | MODIS image for 0000 23 September 2009 showing Red Dawn extending from south of Sydney to the Queensland/NSW border and the PM 10 concentrations measured using Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalances (TEOM) at the same time at ground stations. | 506 Figure A 1 | (a) A Histosol profile and (b) a peatbog in East-European tundra. | 529 Figure A 2 | (a) An Anthrosol (Plaggen) profile and (b) associated landscape in the Netherlands. | 531 Figure A 3 | (a) A Technosol profile and (b) artefacts found in Technosol. | 533 Figure A 4 | (a) A Cryosol profile and (b) associated landscape in West Siberia, Yamal Peninsula. | 535 Figure A 5 | (a) A Leptosol profile in the Northern Ural Mountains and (b) associated landscape. | 537 Figure A 6 | Vertisol gilgai patterns and associated soils: (a) linear gilgai pattern located on a moderately sloping hillside in western South Dakota. Distance between repeating gilgai cycle is about 4 m. (b) Normal gilgai pattern occurring on a nearly level clayey terrace near College Station, TX. After a rainfall event microlows have been partially filled with runoff water from microhighs - repeating gilgai cycle about 4 m in linear length. (c) Trench exposure of soils excavated across normal gilgai pattern - repeating gilgai cycle about 4 m in linear length. Dark-colored deep soil in microlow (leached A and Bss horizons) with light-colored shallow calcareous soils associated with diaper in microhigh (Bssk and Ck horizons). The diaper has been thrust along oblique slickenside planes towards soils surface. Vertical depth of soil trench in about 2 m. (d) Close up of dark-colored soil associated with microlow and light Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report XL
colored diaper associated with microhigh of the trench in (c). | 539 Figure A 7 | (a) A Solonetz profile and (b) the associated landscape in Hungary. | 541 Figure A 8 | (a) A Solonchak profile and (b) a salt crust with halophytes. | 543 Figure A 9 | (a) A Podzol profile and (b) an associated landscape, West-Siberian Plain. | 545 Figure A 10 | (a) A giant Podzol profile and (b) an associated landscape, Brazil. | 546 Figure A 11 | (a) A Ferralsol profile and (b) an associated landscape, Brazil. | 548 Figure A 12 | (a) A Nitisol profile and (b) the associated landscape with termite mounds, Brazil. | 550 Figure A 13 | (a) A Plinthosol profile, (b) details of the plinthic horizon and (c) the associated landscape, South Africa. | 552 Figure A 14 | (a) A Planosol profile and (b) the associated landscape, Argentina. | 554 Figure A 15 | (a) A Gleysol profile and (b) associated landscape in the East European tundra. | 556 Figure A 16 | (a) A Stagnosol profile, (b) stagnic color patterns, (c) marble-like horizontal surface and (d) an associated landscape. | 558 Figure A 17 | (a) An Andosol profile and (b) the associated landscape in Japan. | 560 Figure A 18 | (a) A Chernozem profile (Photo by J. Deckers) and (b) the associated landscape in the Central Russian Uplands. | 562 Figure A 19 | (a) A Kastanozem profile and (b) the associated landscape in Mongolia. | 564 Figure A 20 | (a) A Phaeozem profile and (b) the associated landscape, Argentinian Pampa. | 566 Figure A 21 | (a) An Umbrisol profile, (b) associated vegetation and (c) an associated landscape. | 568 Figure A 22 | (a) A Durisol profile and (b) the associated landscape, Ecuador. | 570 Figure A 23 | (a) A Calcisol profile, (b) an associated landscape and (c and d) secondary carbonates in Calcisols. | 572 Figure A 24 | (a) A Gypsisol profile and (b) an associated landscape. | 574 Figure A 25 | (a) A Retisol profile, (b) the “retic” pattern in a Retisol and (c) the associated landscape, Belgium. | 576 Figure A 26 | (a) An Acrisol profile and (b) the associated landform in Kalimantan, Indonesia. | 578 Figure A 27 | (a) A Lixisol profile and (b) the associated landscape, Brazil. | 580 Figure A 28 | (a) An Alisol profile and (b) the associated landscape, Belgium. | 582 Figure A 29 | (a) A Luvisol profile and (b) the associated landscape, China. | 584 Figure A 30 | (a) A Cambisol profile and (b) the associated landscape, China. | 586 Figure A 31 | (a) A Regosol profile and (b) the associated landscape, China. | 588 Figure A 32 | (a) An Arenosol profile in South Korea and (b) an Arenosol profile in New Mexico. | 590 Figure A 33 | (a) A Fluvisol profile in Wisconsin and (b) a Fluvisol profile in Germany. | 592 Figure A 34 | (a) A Wassent profile and (b) the associated landscape, the Netherlands. | 594 Figure A 35 | Global Soil Map of the World based on HWSD and FAO Revised Legend (Nachtergaele and Petri, 2008) | 595 Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report XLI
Page 1 and 2: Status of the World’s Main Report
Page 3 and 4: Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
Page 5 and 6: Table of contents Disclaimer and co
Page 7 and 8: 4.1 | Current land cover and land u
Page 9 and 10: 6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
Page 11 and 12: 7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
Page 13 and 14: 9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
Page 15 and 16: 12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
Page 17 and 18: 14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
Page 19 and 20: Foreword This document presents the
Page 21 and 22: Preface | Scope of The State of the
Page 23 and 24: Acknowledgments The Status of the W
Page 25 and 26: CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
Page 27 and 28: FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
Page 29 and 30: LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
Page 31 and 32: SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
Page 33 and 34: List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
Page 35 and 36: List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
Page 37 and 38: Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
Page 39: Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
Page 43 and 44: Preface The main objectives of The
Page 45 and 46: Global soil resources Coordinating
Page 47 and 48: The balance between the supporting
Page 49 and 50: 1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
Page 51 and 52: Soil functions and ecosystem servic
Page 53 and 54: Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
Page 55 and 56: 2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
Page 57 and 58: 2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
Page 59 and 60: 2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
Page 61 and 62: In coming years, human population a
Page 63 and 64: Management practices need to be imp
Page 65 and 66: Another important role of soil wate
Page 67 and 68: The development of molecular techno
Page 69 and 70: Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
Page 71 and 72: Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
Page 73 and 74: 3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
Page 75 and 76: Fridland’s was the first attempt
Page 77 and 78: Soil management has a considerable
Page 79 and 80: Accumulation of water soluble salts
Page 81 and 82: and increases infiltration, which r
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
Page 85 and 86: 3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
Page 87 and 88: 3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
Page 89 and 90: References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92:
Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
Page 125 and 126:
Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
Page 195 and 196:
Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200:
Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204:
Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206:
Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250:
Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254:
Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256:
Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258:
Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262:
Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
Page 365 and 366:
Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368:
Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
Page 371 and 372:
Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
Page 373 and 374:
11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376:
The internal stratification within
Page 377 and 378:
Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
Page 383 and 384:
While there is no harmonised exhaus
Page 385 and 386:
Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
Page 387 and 388:
This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
Page 391 and 392:
Considering an increase of industri
Page 393 and 394:
Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402:
References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404:
Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406:
van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408:
12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410:
Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Page 433 and 434:
Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438:
Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440:
Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442:
13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444:
The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454:
13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456:
In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458:
2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460:
Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461 and 462:
Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 463 and 464:
Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470:
2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474:
Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492:
Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
Page 521 and 522:
of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
Page 529 and 530:
egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534:
Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536:
The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540:
Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542:
Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544:
Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548:
The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550:
The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558:
Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
Page 579 and 580:
Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596:
PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598:
GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600:
STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610:
UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612:
6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618:
7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620:
ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624:
ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630:
REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
Page 635 and 636:
9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
Page 637 and 638:
Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
Page 643 and 644:
Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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