World’s Soil Resources

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Soil change: impacts and responses Coordinating Lead Authors: Chencho Norbu (Bhutan), David Robinson (United Kingdom), Miguel Taboada (Argentina) Contributing Authors: Marta Alfaro (Chile), Richard Bardgett (United Kingdom), Sally Bunning (United Kingdom), Jana Compton (United States), William Critchley (United Kingdom), Warren Dick (United States), Scott Fendorft (United States), Gustavo Ferreira (Uruguay), Tsuyushi Miyazaki (Japan), Carl Obst (Australia), Dani Or (Switzerland), Dan Pennock (ITPS/Canada), Matthew Polizzotto (United States), Dan Richter (United States), Marta Rivera- Ferre (Spain), Sonia Seneviratne (Switzerland), Pete Smith (United Kingdom), Garrison Sposito (United States), Susan Trumbore (United States) and Kazuhiko Watanabe (Japan). Reviewing Authors: Dominique Arrouays (ITPS/France), Richard Bardgett (United Kingdom), Marta Camps Arbestain (ITPS/New Zealand), Tandra Fraser (Canada), Ciro Gardi (Italy), Neil McKenzie (ITPS/Australia), Luca Montanarella (ITPS/ EC), Dan Pennock (ITPS/Canada) and Diana Wall (United States). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 168
7 | The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 7.1 | Introduction Soils are now recognized to be in the ‘front line’ of global environmental change and we need to be able to predict how they will respond to changing climate, vegetation, erosion and pollution. This requires a better understanding of the role of soils in the Earth system to ensure that they continue to provide for humanity and the natural world (Schmidt et al., 2011). Although only a thin layer of material at the Earth’s surface, soils like many interfaces play a pivotal role in regulating the flow and transfer of mass and energy between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Moreover, the structure and organization of soils leaves an important imprint on the Earth’s surface in terms of how land is used and how ecosystems develop. Soils help regulate the Earth’s physical processes such as water and energy balances, and act as the biogeochemical engine at the heart of many of the Earth system cycles and processes on which life depends. Some soil processes contribute directly to the delivery of ecosystem goods and services, while other soil processes influence the delivery of goods and services. This section examines how soil processes affect soil and ecosystem function and the production of goods and services of benefit to humanity. Humanity has had an indelible impact on the Earth’s surface, so much so that it has been proposed that the planet has entered a new geological epoch, the Anthropocene (Crutzen, 2002). A population of ca. 7 billion people that will likely grow to 9.6 billion by 2050 is stressing Earth’s resources. Maintaining the planet in an equitable state for human life is perhaps our greatest challenge. Currently, humans have adapted 38 percent of the earth’s ice-free land surface to agriculture, crops and pasture (Foley et al., 2011). Agricultural production, driven by the need to produce food for a growing population, has had a tremendous impact on our ecosystems and resources, especially through the abstraction of water and the leaving of residues. Rockström et al. (2009) proposed that we need a ‘safe operating space for humanity with respect to the Earth system’. They argue that that there exist biophysical planetary boundaries (or thresholds) which it is inadvisable to cross if we are to maintain the needed balance. Vince and Raworth (2012) adapted these concepts to include social goals (1). This presentation underlines the fact that we live in a coupled human earth system. The ecosystem services analytic approach has been developed in order to bridge the science/policy divide. The approach aims to make the concepts clear for all and to set out what needs to be considered in order for humanity to live within sustainable boundaries. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 169
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
Page 159 and 160: Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
Page 161 and 162: 6.3 | Soil contamination status and
Page 163 and 164: and Uruguay. The number of exposed
Page 165 and 166: products increase soil acidity (Bar
Page 167 and 168: availability and inhibit plant grow
Page 169 and 170: In several Asian countries, a blend
Page 171 and 172: underlines the need for global-scal
Page 173 and 174: Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
Page 175 and 176: Figure 6.11 Major components of the
Page 177 and 178: Within the same continent, large va
Page 179 and 180: Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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Page 183 and 184: The quality of the soil’s water i
Page 185 and 186: At continental scales, the only pra
Page 187 and 188: Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
Page 189 and 190: Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
Page 191 and 192: Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
Page 193 and 194: Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
Page 195 and 196: Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
Page 197 and 198: Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200: Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
Page 201 and 202: Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204: Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206: Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
Page 207 and 208: United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
Page 209: Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
Page 213 and 214: Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
Page 215 and 216: 0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
Page 217 and 218: One approach to maintaining soil he
Page 219 and 220: Author Database Used Extent Estimat
Page 221 and 222: salinization. Safe design and opera
Page 223 and 224: The second limitation to prediction
Page 225 and 226: Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
Page 227 and 228: soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
Page 229 and 230: extremes several weeks in advance (
Page 231 and 232: The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
Page 235 and 236: The concept of the critical load of
Page 237 and 238: as it indicates that management and
Page 239 and 240: 10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
Page 241 and 242: phenomena such as the onset of mass
Page 243 and 244: Although poorly explored, diversity
Page 245 and 246: affect the health of humans and ani
Page 247 and 248: Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250: Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252: Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254: Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256: Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258: Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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