World’s Soil Resources

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The FAO emissions database estimates globally there are 250 000 km 2 of drained organic soils under cropland and grassland, with total GHG emissions of 0.9 Gt CO2eq yr -1 in 2010. The largest contributions are from Asia (0.44 Gt CO2eq yr -1 ) and Europe (0.18 Gt CO2eq yr -1 ; FAO, 2013). Joosten (2010) estimated that there are >500 000 km 2 of drained peatlands in the world including under forests, with CO 2 emissions having increased from 1.06 Gt CO 2 yr -1 in 1990 to 1.30 Gt CO 2 yr -1 in 2008. This is despite a decreasing trend in Annex I countries, from 0.65 to 0.49 Gt CO 2 yr -1 , primarily due to natural and artificial rewetting of peatlands. In Southeast Asia, CO 2 emissions from drained peatlands in 2006 were 0.61 ± 0.25 Gt CO 2 yr -1 (Hooijer et al., 2010). Soil drainage also affects mineral soils. Meersmans et al. (2009) showed that initially poorly drained valley soils in Belgium have lost significant amount of topsoil SOC (e.g. between – 2 and – 4 kg C m -2 for the 1960-2006 period). The cause is most probably intensified soil drainage in these environment for cultivation purposes. A serious consequence of deforestation is extensive loss of carbon from the soil, a process regulated by microbial diversity. Crowther et al. (2014) assessed the effects of deforestation on soil microbial communities across multiple biomes, drawing on data from eleven regions ranging from Hawaii to Northern Alaska. The magnitude of the vegetation effect varied between sites. Deforestation dramatically altered the microbial communities in sandy soils, while the effects were minimal in clay-rich soils, even after extensive tree removal. Fine soil particles have a larger surface area to bind nutrients and water. This capacity might buffer soil microbes in clay-rich soils against the disturbance of deforestation. Sandy soils, by contrast, have larger particles with less surface area and so retain fewer nutrients and less organic matter. Microbial community changes were associated with distinct changes in the microbial catabolic profile. Dynamic Global Vegetation Models (DGVMs) can be used to look at the combined effects of land use change, climate, CO 2 , and in some cases N deposition, on vegetation and soil properties over time. In Table 4.1, Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 we show results from three vegetation models: ISAM (Jain et al., 2013; El-Masri et al., 2013; Barman et al., 2014 a, b), LPJ-GUESS (Smith et al., 2001; Pugh et al., 2015) and LPJmL (Bondeau et al., 2007; Schaphoff et al., 2013). The ISAM model includes a nitrogen cycle, N deposition and changes in soil N. The ISAM and LPJ-GUESS models were run with the HYDE historical land use change data set (History Database of the Global Environment, Klein Goldewijk et al., 2011). The LPJmL group combined three land use change data sets (Klein Goldewijk and Drecht, 2006; Ramankutty et al., 2008; Portmann, Siebert and Döll, 2010) with the global geographic distribution of agricultural lands in the year 2000 (Fader et al., 2010). The models were also run with historical climate and CO 2 (and N deposition in the case of ISAM). Figure 4.4 shows the mineral soil C and N concentration of different land cover types in different geographic ranges while Table 4.1 and Figure 4.5 show the loss of carbon due to historical land use change from 1860 to 2010. Differences between the models are large for some systems and regions due to different landuse change data, different land cover definitions, different processes included in the models, etc. For example, soil carbon losses are higher in the LPJmL model in part due to greater land cover change in their land cover reconstructions. The highest carbon losses are associated with the conversion of forests to croplands (Figures 4.4 and 4.5). While Table 4.1 shows the global mean soil carbon loss, the effects are not the same everywhere (Figure 4.5). This may be the case, for example, when forests are converted to pastures in regions where pastures strongly favour soil C accumulation. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Soils and Humans 56
70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil Carbon (kg/m2) 40 30 20 10 0 All "natural" forest grassland shrubland crop pasture All "natural" forest grassland shrubland crop pasture All "natural" forest grassland shrubland crop pasture ISAM LPJml LPJ_GUESS Tropics Temperate Boreal 70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil Carbon (kg/m2) 40 30 20 10 0 All "natural" forest grassland shrubland crop pasture All "natural" forest grassland shrubland crop pasture All "natural" forest grassland shrubland crop pasture ISAM LPJml LPJ_GUESS Tropics Temperate Boreal Figure 4.4 Soil carbon and nitrogen under different land cover types. Source: Smith et al. (in press). Panel (a) shows mean soil carbon stocks; Panel (b) shows mean soil nitrogen stocks. Based on three vegetation models ISAM (Jain et al., 2013; El-Masri et al., 2013; Barman, Jain and Liang, 2014 a, b), LPJ-GUESS (Smith et al., 2001; Pugh et al., 2014); and LPJmL (Bondeau et al., 2007; Schaphoff et al., 2013). The soil carbon and soil nitrogen are the average over the period 2001 to 2010 (2003 for LPJmL) in model simulations with historical land-use change, climate, and CO 2 (and N 2 for the ISAM model). All ‘natural’ land is the mean of all lands without pasture or crop land cover. It includes ‘un-managed’ forest, grassland and shrubland categories and may include other land cover types depending on the models e.g. bare soil. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Soils and Humans 57
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
Page 47 and 48: The balance between the supporting
Page 49 and 50: 1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
Page 51 and 52: Soil functions and ecosystem servic
Page 53 and 54: Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
Page 55 and 56: 2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
Page 57 and 58: 2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
Page 59 and 60: 2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
Page 61 and 62: In coming years, human population a
Page 63 and 64: Management practices need to be imp
Page 65 and 66: Another important role of soil wate
Page 67 and 68: The development of molecular techno
Page 69 and 70: Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
Page 71 and 72: Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
Page 73 and 74: 3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
Page 75 and 76: Fridland’s was the first attempt
Page 77 and 78: Soil management has a considerable
Page 79 and 80: Accumulation of water soluble salts
Page 81 and 82: and increases infiltration, which r
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
Page 85 and 86: 3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
Page 87 and 88: 3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
Page 89 and 90: References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92: Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
Page 93 and 94: 75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
Page 95 and 96: or increasing forest areas. Between
Page 97: Degrading land covers approximately
Page 101 and 102: A meta-analysis of 57 publications
Page 103 and 104: the nutrient inputs remain in the c
Page 105 and 106: Livestock density Livestock product
Page 107 and 108: 4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
Page 109 and 110: Impact of land take Land take, by i
Page 111 and 112: Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
Page 113 and 114: The formation of sulfidic material
Page 115 and 116: are however strongly dependent on t
Page 117 and 118: Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
Page 119 and 120: Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
Page 121 and 122: Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
Page 123 and 124: Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
Page 125 and 126: Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
Page 127 and 128: Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
Page 129 and 130: Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
Page 131 and 132: 5 | Drivers of global soil change D
Page 133 and 134: 5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
Page 135 and 136: Large areas of arable land have bee
Page 137 and 138: most affected zone with 15 million
Page 139 and 140: (Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
Page 141 and 142: MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
Page 143 and 144: 6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
Page 145 and 146: Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
Page 147 and 148: High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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