World’s Soil Resources

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Disclaimer and copyright Recommended citation: FAO and ITPS. 2015. Status of the World’s Soil Resources (SWSR) – Main Report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, Rome, Italy The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-109004-6 © FAO, 2015 FAO encourages the use, reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Except where otherwise indicated, material may be copied, downloaded and printed for private study, research and teaching purposes, or for use in non-commercial products or services, provided that appropriate acknowledgement of FAO as the source and copyright holder is given and that FAO’s endorsement of users’ views, products or services is not implied in any way. All requests for translation and adaptation rights, and for resale and other commercial use rights should be made via www.fao.org/contact-us/licence-request or addressed to copyright@fao.org. FAO information products are available on the FAO website www.fao.org/publications and can be purchased through publications-sales@fao.org. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report IV
Table of contents Disclaimer and copyright | IV Table of contents | V Foreword | XIX Preface | Scope of The State of the World’s Soil Resources | XXI Acknowledgment | XXII List of abbreviations | XXIV List of tables | XXXIII List of boxes | XXXIV List of figures | XXXV Preface | 1 Global soil resources | 3 1 | Introduction | 4 1.1 | The World Soil Charter | 4 1.2 | Basic concepts | 7 Sustainable soil management | 8 Soil degradation and threats to soil functions | 8 Soil functions and ecosystem services | 9 Soils and natural capital | 9 Planetary boundaries and safe operating space for humanity | 9 Biodiversity | 10 2 | The role of soils in ecosystem processes | 13 2.1 | Soils and the carbon cycle | 13 2.1.1 | Quantitative amounts of organic C stored in soil | 14 Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report V
Page 1 and 2: Status of the World’s Main Report
Page 3: Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
Page 7 and 8: 4.1 | Current land cover and land u
Page 9 and 10: 6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
Page 11 and 12: 7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
Page 13 and 14: 9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
Page 15 and 16: 12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
Page 17 and 18: 14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
Page 19 and 20: Foreword This document presents the
Page 21 and 22: Preface | Scope of The State of the
Page 23 and 24: Acknowledgments The Status of the W
Page 25 and 26: CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
Page 27 and 28: FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
Page 29 and 30: LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
Page 31 and 32: SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
Page 33 and 34: List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
Page 35 and 36: List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
Page 37 and 38: Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
Page 39 and 40: Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
Page 41 and 42: colored diaper associated with micr
Page 43 and 44: Preface The main objectives of The
Page 45 and 46: Global soil resources Coordinating
Page 47 and 48: The balance between the supporting
Page 49 and 50: 1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
Page 51 and 52: Soil functions and ecosystem servic
Page 53 and 54: Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
Page 89 and 90:
References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92:
Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
Page 95 and 96:
or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
Page 113 and 114:
The formation of sulfidic material
Page 115 and 116:
are however strongly dependent on t
Page 117 and 118:
Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
Page 119 and 120:
Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
Page 123 and 124:
Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
Page 125 and 126:
Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
Page 127 and 128:
Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
Page 129 and 130:
Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
Page 165 and 166:
products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
Page 171 and 172:
underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
Page 189 and 190:
Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
Page 191 and 192:
Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
Page 193 and 194:
Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
Page 195 and 196:
Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
Page 197 and 198:
Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200:
Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
Page 201 and 202:
Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204:
Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206:
Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
Page 207 and 208:
United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
Page 209 and 210:
Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
Page 211 and 212:
7 | The impact of soil change on ec
Page 213 and 214:
Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
Page 215 and 216:
0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
Page 217 and 218:
One approach to maintaining soil he
Page 219 and 220:
Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
Page 223 and 224:
The second limitation to prediction
Page 225 and 226:
Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
Page 231 and 232:
The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234:
capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
Page 237 and 238:
as it indicates that management and
Page 239 and 240:
10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
Page 243 and 244:
Although poorly explored, diversity
Page 245 and 246:
affect the health of humans and ani
Page 247 and 248:
Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250:
Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252:
Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254:
Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256:
Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258:
Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260:
Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262:
Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
Page 263 and 264:
UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 265 and 266:
8 | Governance and policy responses
Page 267 and 268:
contemporary challenge for policy m
Page 269 and 270:
Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
Page 271 and 272:
Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
Page 277 and 278:
In New Zealand, there are few regul
Page 279 and 280:
The SEEA Central Framework identifi
Page 281 and 282:
EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283 and 284:
World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
Page 285 and 286:
9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
Page 287 and 288:
Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
Page 289 and 290:
The soils are strongly weathered an
Page 291 and 292:
It exposes the soil to the erosive
Page 293 and 294:
In many African cultures, harvestin
Page 295 and 296:
Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
Page 299 and 300:
Considering that over 80 percent of
Page 301 and 302:
Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
Page 311 and 312:
From 2006, several further national
Page 313 and 314:
Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
Page 317 and 318:
Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
Page 319 and 320:
Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
Page 321 and 322:
Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
Page 323 and 324:
Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
Page 325 and 326:
Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
Page 327 and 328:
Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
Page 329 and 330:
10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 331 and 332:
Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
Page 335 and 336:
10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
Page 339 and 340:
10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
Page 347 and 348:
Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
Page 349 and 350:
10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
Page 359 and 360:
Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 361 and 362:
References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
Page 363 and 364:
FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
Page 365 and 366:
Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368:
Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
Page 369 and 370:
Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
Page 371 and 372:
Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
Page 373 and 374:
11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376:
The internal stratification within
Page 377 and 378:
Mediterranean zone This zone by def
Page 379 and 380:
(5) Salinization and sodification I
Page 381 and 382:
The real extent of diffuse soil con
Page 383 and 384:
While there is no harmonised exhaus
Page 385 and 386:
Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
Page 387 and 388:
This is due to the country’s geo-
Page 389 and 390:
Future changes in climate and land
Page 391 and 392:
Considering an increase of industri
Page 393 and 394:
Comparison of cultivated soils with
Page 395 and 396:
Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
Page 397 and 398:
The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
Page 399 and 400:
Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402:
References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404:
Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406:
van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408:
12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410:
Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
Page 411 and 412:
Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
Page 413 and 414:
humid. The most common soil groups
Page 415 and 416:
12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418:
New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420:
Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422:
Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
Page 423 and 424:
The salinity of soils on the cultiv
Page 425 and 426:
Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
Page 427 and 428:
Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
Page 429 and 430:
Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432:
Page 433 and 434:
Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436:
Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438:
Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440:
Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442:
13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444:
The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446:
Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447 and 448:
Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 449 and 450:
13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
Page 451 and 452:
13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454:
13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456:
In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458:
2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460:
Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461 and 462:
Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 463 and 464:
Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
Page 465 and 466:
13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
Page 467 and 468:
Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470:
2 - Land degradation assessment map
Page 471 and 472:
Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474:
Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492:
Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
Page 493 and 494:
Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496:
The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498:
14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
Page 499 and 500:
The relationship between soil prope
Page 501 and 502:
14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
Page 503 and 504:
Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
Page 505 and 506:
Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
Page 507 and 508:
Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
Page 509 and 510:
14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
Page 511 and 512:
Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
Page 521 and 522:
of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
Page 527 and 528:
15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
Page 529 and 530:
egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534:
Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536:
The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540:
Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542:
Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544:
Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
Page 545 and 546:
Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548:
The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550:
The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558:
Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
Page 563 and 564:
16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
Page 565 and 566:
16.3 | Response All activities in A
Page 567 and 568:
IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
Page 569 and 570:
Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
Page 571 and 572:
a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
Page 573 and 574:
Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
Page 575 and 576:
a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
Page 579 and 580:
Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
Page 581 and 582:
a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
Page 583 and 584:
Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
Page 585 and 586:
a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
Page 587 and 588:
Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
Page 589 and 590:
FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
Page 591 and 592:
NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
Page 593 and 594:
PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596:
PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598:
GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600:
STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602:
ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
Page 603 and 604:
5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
Page 605 and 606:
KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
Page 607 and 608:
PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610:
UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612:
6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
Page 613 and 614:
CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
Page 615 and 616:
GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618:
7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620:
ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
Page 621 and 622:
LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624:
ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
Page 625 and 626:
LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
Page 627 and 628:
8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630:
REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
Page 631 and 632:
ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
Page 633 and 634:
FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
Page 635 and 636:
9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
Page 637 and 638:
Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
Page 639 and 640:
Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
Page 641 and 642:
Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
Page 643 and 644:
Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
Page 645 and 646:
Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
Page 647 and 648:
Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
Page 649:
Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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