World’s Soil Resources

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Chapter 8 of the report explores policy, institutional and land use management options and responses to soil changes that are available to governments and land users. The regional assessments in Chapters 9 to 16 follow a standard outline: after a brief description of the main biophysical features of each region, the status and trends of each major soil threat are discussed. Each chapter ends with one or more national case studies of soil change and a table summarizing the results, including the status and trends of soil changes in the region and related uncertainties. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report XXII
Acknowledgments The Status of the World’s Soil Resources report was made possible by the commitment and voluntary work of the world’s leading soil scientists and the institutions they are affiliated with. We would like to express our gratitude to all the Coordinating Lead Authors, Lead Authors, Contributing Authors, Review Editors and Reviewers. We would also like to thank the editorial staff and the GSP Secretariat for their dedication in coordinating the production of this first seminal report. Appreciation is expressed to many Governments who have supported the participation of their resident scientists in this major enterprise. In particular, our gratitude to the European Commission who financially supported the development and publication of this report. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report XXIII
Page 1 and 2: Status of the World’s Main Report
Page 3 and 4: Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
Page 5 and 6: Table of contents Disclaimer and co
Page 7 and 8: 4.1 | Current land cover and land u
Page 9 and 10: 6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
Page 11 and 12: 7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
Page 13 and 14: 9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
Page 15 and 16: 12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
Page 17 and 18: 14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
Page 19 and 20: Foreword This document presents the
Page 21: Preface | Scope of The State of the
Page 25 and 26: CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
Page 27 and 28: FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
Page 29 and 30: LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
Page 31 and 32: SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
Page 33 and 34: List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
Page 35 and 36: List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
Page 37 and 38: Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
Page 39 and 40: Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
Page 41 and 42: colored diaper associated with micr
Page 43 and 44: Preface The main objectives of The
Page 45 and 46: Global soil resources Coordinating
Page 47 and 48: The balance between the supporting
Page 49 and 50: 1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
Page 51 and 52: Soil functions and ecosystem servic
Page 53 and 54: Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
Page 55 and 56: 2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
Page 57 and 58: 2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
Page 59 and 60: 2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
Page 61 and 62: In coming years, human population a
Page 63 and 64: Management practices need to be imp
Page 65 and 66: Another important role of soil wate
Page 67 and 68: The development of molecular techno
Page 69 and 70: Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
Page 71 and 72: Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
Page 73 and 74:
3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
Page 195 and 196:
Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200:
Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
Page 201 and 202:
Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204:
Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206:
Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250:
Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252:
Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254:
Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256:
Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262:
Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
Page 323 and 324:
Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
Page 325 and 326:
Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
Page 327 and 328:
Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
Page 363 and 364:
FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
Page 365 and 366:
Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368:
Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
Page 369 and 370:
Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
Page 371 and 372:
Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
Page 373 and 374:
11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376:
The internal stratification within
Page 377 and 378:
Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
Page 381 and 382:
The real extent of diffuse soil con
Page 383 and 384:
While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
Page 391 and 392:
Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402:
References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404:
Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406:
van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408:
12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410:
Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418:
New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420:
Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422:
Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432:
Page 433 and 434:
Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436:
Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438:
Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440:
Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442:
13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444:
The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446:
Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447 and 448:
Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 449 and 450:
13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454:
13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456:
In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458:
2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460:
Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470:
2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474:
Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492:
Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496:
The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498:
14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
Page 501 and 502:
14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
Page 509 and 510:
14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
Page 521 and 522:
of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
Page 527 and 528:
15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
Page 529 and 530:
egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534:
Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536:
The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540:
Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542:
Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544:
Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
Page 545 and 546:
Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548:
The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550:
The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558:
Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
Page 563 and 564:
16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
Page 567 and 568:
IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
Page 575 and 576:
a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
Page 579 and 580:
Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
Page 587 and 588:
Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
Page 593 and 594:
PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596:
PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598:
GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600:
STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602:
ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
Page 603 and 604:
5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
Page 605 and 606:
KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
Page 607 and 608:
PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610:
UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612:
6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
Page 613 and 614:
CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
Page 615 and 616:
GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618:
7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620:
ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
Page 621 and 622:
LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624:
ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
Page 625 and 626:
LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
Page 627 and 628:
8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630:
REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
Page 631 and 632:
ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
Page 633 and 634:
FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
Page 635 and 636:
9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
Page 637 and 638:
Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
Page 639 and 640:
Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
Page 641 and 642:
Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
Page 643 and 644:
Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
Page 645 and 646:
Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
Page 647 and 648:
Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
Page 649:
Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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