World’s Soil Resources

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A regional follow-up in Southeast Asia resulted in a more detailed database for that region: ASSOD (Van Lynden and Oldeman, 1997). Since its publication, some expert opinion has faulted GLASOD, questioning the objectivity and reproducibility of an assessment based on expert opinion as an assessment approach (Sonneveld and Dent, 2007). However, at the time GLASOD was developed there were few alternatives available, especially given the overall lack of remotely sensed data at the time. Even today the criticism seems unwarranted as remotely sensed techniques and most modelling approaches have so far failed to come up with more useful assessments. GLASOD results are presented in Figure 3.8. Figure 3.8 GLASOD results. Source: Oldeman, Hakkeling and Sombroek, 1991. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Global Soil Resources 44
3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem approach The first approaches of LADA (see 3.7 above) used remotely-sensed NDVI data to prepare the Global Land Degradation Assessment – GLADA (Bai et al., 2008). However, this was soon superseded by a complementary approach that focused on the actual status and trends of land resources in terms of six factors: biomass, water resources, soil health 9 , above-ground biodiversity, and economic and social provisions that contribute to ecosystem goods and services (Figure 3.9). The evaluation was based on interpretation of global databases available in the public domain, using documented algorithms to achieve a rating for each of the six factors in terms of status and trends. In order to map the various aspects, a special ‘global land use system’ was developed (Nachtergaele and Petri, 2011) which allowed cause and effect to be linked. Results were presented in radar diagrams (Figure 3.10) that showed the variability of ecosystem services provided as a function of land use and the need for trade-offs between different factors related to ecosystem goods and services. The GLADIS system is accessible on-line at: http://www.fao.org/nr/lada/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=161&Itemid=113&lang=en An example of an output for global soil compaction is shown in Figure 3.10. Criticism of the GLADIS system focused on the unreliability of some of the global databases used and on questions about the downscaling relationships that were developed at local scale (such as the RUSLE). For the specific factor - soil health - the absence of an assessment of wind erosion is certainly a limitation, while the fact that no difference is made between ‘natural’ and ‘human induced’ soil erosion is also confusing. These weaknesses have been recognized and should be corrected where possible during the further development of the GLADIS information system which is pending. Forest Urban Biomass (Acc) Biomass (Acc) Soc./Cult. Benefit Biomass (Ann) Soc./Cult. Benefit Biomass (Ann) Economic benefit Soil health Economic benefit Soil health Biodiv. Water Q/Q Biodiv. Water Q/Q Agriculture Biomass (Acc) Soc./Cult. Benefit Biomass (Ann) Economic benefit Soil health Biodiv. Water Q/Q Figure 3.9 Example of the effect Figure of land 3.9: Example use on of indicative the effect of land factors use on for indicative ecosystem factors for goods ecosystem and goods services and services 9 The soil health status was obtained by comparing the soil suitability for the actual land use. The soil health trend was based on a combination of ratings for the risk of erosion by water, the soil compaction risk, a nutrient balance, and the soil contamination and soil salinization risks. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Global Soil Resources 45
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
Page 35 and 36: List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
Page 37 and 38: Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
Page 39 and 40: Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
Page 41 and 42: colored diaper associated with micr
Page 43 and 44: Preface The main objectives of The
Page 45 and 46: Global soil resources Coordinating
Page 47 and 48: The balance between the supporting
Page 49 and 50: 1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
Page 51 and 52: Soil functions and ecosystem servic
Page 53 and 54: Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
Page 55 and 56: 2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
Page 57 and 58: 2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
Page 59 and 60: 2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
Page 61 and 62: In coming years, human population a
Page 63 and 64: Management practices need to be imp
Page 65 and 66: Another important role of soil wate
Page 67 and 68: The development of molecular techno
Page 69 and 70: Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
Page 71 and 72: Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
Page 73 and 74: 3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
Page 75 and 76: Fridland’s was the first attempt
Page 77 and 78: Soil management has a considerable
Page 79 and 80: Accumulation of water soluble salts
Page 81 and 82: and increases infiltration, which r
Page 83 and 84: Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
Page 85: 3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
Page 89 and 90: References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92: Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
Page 93 and 94: 75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
Page 95 and 96: or increasing forest areas. Between
Page 97 and 98: Degrading land covers approximately
Page 99 and 100: 70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
Page 101 and 102: A meta-analysis of 57 publications
Page 103 and 104: the nutrient inputs remain in the c
Page 105 and 106: Livestock density Livestock product
Page 107 and 108: 4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
Page 109 and 110: Impact of land take Land take, by i
Page 111 and 112: Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
Page 113 and 114: The formation of sulfidic material
Page 115 and 116: are however strongly dependent on t
Page 117 and 118: Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
Page 119 and 120: Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
Page 121 and 122: Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
Page 123 and 124: Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
Page 125 and 126: Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
Page 127 and 128: Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
Page 129 and 130: Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
Page 131 and 132: 5 | Drivers of global soil change D
Page 133 and 134: 5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
Page 135 and 136: Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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