World’s Soil Resources

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Solomon Islands Unsustainable logging Erosion, fertility decline, reduced carbon stocks, loss of biodiversity Low Lying Atoll Islands Local production of fresh food Sea-level rise Urban expansion Improved management of limited soil resources Salinization, loss of soil resources Sealing and capping of land Table 15.1 Summary of current primary drivers of land-use and the associated implications for soil resources in the Southwest Pacific region. Country Population 2015 Thousands Population 2050 Thousands GDP per capita USD (2009-2013) Australia 23 923 33 735 67 468 New Zealand 4 596 5 778 41 556 Melanesia Fiji 893 918 4 572 New Caledonia 263 364 - Papua New Guinea 7 632 13 092 2 088 Solomon Islands 584 1010 1 954 Vanuatu 264 473 3 303 Total Melanesia 9 636 15 858 Polynesia American Samoa 56 62 - Cook Islands 21 24 - French Polynesia 283 337 - Niue 1 1 - Samoa 193 242 3 647 Tokelau 1 1 - Tonga 106 140 4 427 Tuvalu 10 12 3 861 Wallis and Futuna Islands 13 13 - Total Polynesia 684 832 Micronesia Federate States of Micronesia 104 130 3 235 Kiribati 106 156 1 651 Marshall Islands 53 67 3 325 Nauru 10 11 - Northern Mariana Islands 55 52 - Palau 21 28 11 810 Total Micronesia 519 671 Table 15.2 Current population, project population (UNDESA, 2013) and Gross Domestic Product per capita (World Bank, 2014) for countries of the region. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 484 in the Southwest Pacific
15.5 | Threats to soils in the region 15.5.1 | Erosion by wind and water The rates of soil erosion occurring today in Australia and New Zealand are significantly less than in previous decades. The situation in the rest of the region is less clear. Very fast rates of erosion are occurring in countries with uncontrolled land clearing and logging (e.g. Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands). Unsustainable rates of erosion are also likely to be occurring in marginal and hilly lands used for agriculture in some Pacific countries, for example Fiji (Liedtke, 1989). Soil erosion by wind is a significant problem in Australia and an account of trends and current status is presented below. It is not common elsewhere in the region because of the humid climate, although drier areas in New Zealand (primarily on the South Island) are prone to wind erosion (Eyles, 1983). Australia Current rates of soil erosion by water in Australia are much less than the peak periods just after land clearing. In many parts of the country, widespread gully erosion occurred during this time and the hydrological regime of many river systems was changed. In southern Australia, gully and river bank erosion are the dominant sources of sediment supplied to streams. Gully erosion in southern Australia has now been largely stabilised, but gullies are still actively forming in northern Queensland and in some agricultural regions of Western Australia (NLWRA, 2001a). Despite the apparent stabilization, current rates of soil erosion by water across much of Australia now exceed soil formation rates by a factor of at least several hundred and, in some areas, several thousand. As a result, the expected half-life of soils (the time for half the soil to be eroded) in some upland areas used for agriculture ranges from less than a century to several hundred years. The latest assessment concluded that soil erosion by water in Australia is still at unsustainable rates, but there are large uncertainties about the time until soil loss will have a critical impact on agricultural productivity (SOE, 2011; Bui et al., 2010; Bui, Hancock and Wilkinson, 2011). Environmental impacts of excessive sedimentation and nutrient delivery on inland waters, estuaries and coasts are already occurring. It is estimated that up to 10 million ha of land have less than 500 years until the soil’s A-horizon (effectively the more fertile topsoil) will be lost to erosion. Most of this land is in humid subtropical Queensland. Integrated studies of soil formation and erosion using a variety of techniques will be needed to better understand the extent, severity and significance of the problem. However, it is clear that a concerted program of soil conservation is essential to control this chronic form of land degradation across large areas of Australia. The problem is arguably having its greatest environmental impact on the World Heritage listed Great Barrier Reef. The latest scientific consensus is that the decline of marine water quality associated with terrestrial runoff from the adjacent catchments is a major cause of the current poor state of many of the key marine ecosystems of the Great Barrier Reef. The main source of excess nutrients, fine sediments and pesticides from Great Barrier Reef catchments is diffuse source pollution from agriculture (Brodie et al., 2013). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 485 in the Southwest Pacific
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476: References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478: Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480: FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482: Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484: Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486: 14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488: The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490: 14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492: Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
Page 493 and 494: Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496: The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498: 14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
Page 499 and 500: The relationship between soil prope
Page 501 and 502: 14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
Page 503 and 504: Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
Page 505 and 506: Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
Page 507 and 508: Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
Page 509 and 510: 14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
Page 511 and 512: Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514: Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516: Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518: USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520: 15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
Page 521 and 522: of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524: The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525: Country and land-use driver Implica
Page 529 and 530: egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532: New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534: Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536: The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538: Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540: Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542: Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544: Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
Page 545 and 546: Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548: The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550: The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552: Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554: Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556: Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558: Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560: Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562: Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
Page 563 and 564: 16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
Page 565 and 566: 16.3 | Response All activities in A
Page 567 and 568: IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
Page 569 and 570: Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
Page 571 and 572: a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
Page 573 and 574: Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
Page 575 and 576: a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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