World’s Soil Resources

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Gaistardo, Carlos Cruz Gardi, Ciro Gerasimova, Maria Govers, Gerard Grayson, Sue Griffiths, Robert Grundy, Mike Hakki Emrah, Erdogan Hamrouni, Heidi Hanly, James Harper, Richard Harrison, Rob Havlicek, Elena Hempel, Jon Henriquez, Carlos Roberto Hewitt, Allan Hiederer, Roland Hong, Suk Young House, Jo Huising, Jeroen Ibánez, Juan José Indraratne, Srimathie Jain, Atul Jefwa, Joyce Jung, Kangho Kadono, Atsunobu Kawahigashi, Masayuki Kelliher, Frank Kihara, Job Konyushkova, Maria Krasilnikov, Pavel Kuikman, Peter Kuziev, Ramazan Lai, Shawntine Lal, Rattan Lamers, John Lee, Dar-Yuan Lee, Seung Heon Lehmann, Johannes INEGI, Mexico University of Parma,Italy Moscow State University, Russian Federation. Catholic University Leuven, Belgium. University of British Columbia, Canada. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, UK CSIRO, Australia Ministry Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Turkey Ministry of Agriculture, Tunisia Massey University, New Zealand. Murdoch University, Perth, Australia University of Washington Université de Neufchatel.(CH) NRCS, Lincoln, USA. University of Costa Rica, Costa Rica. Landcare Research, New Zealand. Joint Research Center - EU (Germany) National Academy of Agricultural Science, RDA, South Korea University of Bristol, England, UK. TSBF-CIAT, Kenya (The Netherlands) Spanish National Research Council University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois, USA TSBF-CIAT, Kenya. National Academy of Agricultural Science, RDA, South Korea Tottori University of Environmental Studies, Japan Tokyo Metropolitan University , Japan AgResearch, New Zealand. CIAT, Kenya. Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia Moscow State University, Russian Federation. Wageningen University, The Netherlands. National Institute Soil Science, Uzbekistan. MWH Americas Inc. Taiwan branch. Ohio State University, USA Bonn University, Germany. National Taiwan University, Taiwan Korea Rural Community Corp., Korea Cornell University, USA (Germany) Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Authors and affiliations 604
Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Macias, Felipe Maina, Fredah Mamo, Tekalign Mantel, Stephan McDowell, Richard McKenzie, Neil Medvedev, Vitaliy Mendonça-Santos, de Lourdes Maria Miyazaki, Tsuyushi Montanarella, Luca Moore, John Morrison, John Mubarak, Abdelrahman Abdalla Mung'atu, Joseph Muniz, Olegario Nachtergaele, Freddy Nanzyo, Masami Ndiaye, Déthié Neall, Vince Norbu, Chencho Noroozi, Ali Akbar Obst, Carl Ogle, Stephen Ogunkunle, Ayoade Okoth, Peter Omutu, Christian Or, Dani Owens, Phil Pan, Genxing Panagos, Panos Parikh, Sanjai Pasos Mabel, Susana (†) Paterson, Garry Paustian, Keith Pennock, Dan Pietragalla, Vanina NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, Australia University of Manitoba, Canada Institute of Genetic and Developmental Biology, CAS, China Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Agricultural Research Institute, Kenya. Ministry of Agriculture, Ethiopia. World Soil Information (ISRIC), the Netherlands AgResearch, New Zealand. CSIRO, Australia Ukrainan Agricultural Academy EMBRAPA, Brazil. University of Tokyo, Japan. Joint Research Center - EU (Italy) Colorado State University, USA University of Wollongong, Australia University of Khartoum, Sudan. Jomo Kenyatta University, Kenya. Soil Institute, Cuba. FAO, United Nations (Belgium) Tohoku University, Japan. CSE, Senegal Massey University, New Zealand. Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Buthan SCWM Institute, Iran. University of Melbourne, Australia Colorado State University, USA. University of Ibadan, Nigeria. TSBF-CIAT, Kenya. University of Nairobi, Kenya. ETH, Switzerland. Purdue University, USA. Nanjing Agricultural University, China. Joint Research Center - EU (Greece) University of California-Davis, USA. University Buenos Aires, Argentina. ISCW, Republic of South Africa. Colorado State University, USA. University of Saskatchewan, Canada. Min. Environment, Argentina. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Authors and affiliations 605
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438:
Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460:
Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470:
2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542:
Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544:
Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558:
Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
Page 579 and 580:
Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
Page 593 and 594:
PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596: PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598: GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600: STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602: ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
Page 603 and 604: 5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
Page 605 and 606: KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
Page 607 and 608: PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610: UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612: 6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
Page 613 and 614: CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
Page 615 and 616: GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618: 7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620: ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
Page 621 and 622: LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624: ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
Page 625 and 626: LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
Page 627 and 628: 8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630: REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
Page 631 and 632: ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
Page 633 and 634: FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
Page 635 and 636: 9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
Page 637 and 638: Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
Page 639 and 640: Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
Page 641 and 642: Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
Page 643 and 644: Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
Page 645: Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
Page 649: Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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