World’s Soil Resources

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(Sheffield and Wood, 2008; Dorigo et al., 2012). Figure 6.16(a) shows the spatial variability of soil water globally from model simulations, ranging from high values in the wet tropics and northern boreal forests, to the desert regions, such as North Africa, the Middle East, central Asia and Australia. Seasonally, soil water varies with changes in precipitation (Figure 6.16 b) with the largest variations in the monsoonal regions of south and southeast Asia, west and central Africa and the Amazon. From year-to-year, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the main driver of soil water variability globally (Sheffield and Wood, 2011), often leading to drought conditions in the Amazon, south Asia, eastern Australia and southern Africa during El Niño years, and to drought in the United States southwest and the Horn of Africa in La Niña years. Longer-term changes in soil water are mostly driven by changes in precipitation (Figure 6.16 c and d). Global warming may be playing a role in drying soil water in some regions, although this is a subject of debate. Over the past 60 years, soil water has been generally wetting over the western hemisphere and drying over the eastern hemisphere, mostly in Africa, East Asia and Europe. Trends over the past 20 years (Figure 6.16 e and f) indicate intensification of drying in northern China and southeast Australia, and switches from wetting to drying across much of North America, and southern South America, in part because of several large-scale and lengthy drought events. 6.10.4 | Hotspots of pressures on soil moisture Hotspots of pressures on soil water quantity and quality have emerged around the globe. These result from changes in soil water driven by climate change and variability, coupled with human pressures on soil water through, for example, agricultural intensification and extensification. We describe three hotspots: the North China Plain, the Horn of Africa, and the southwestern United States. The North China Plain has seen rapid expansion of agriculture driven by population growth and increasing demand for food. This area is relatively dry with around 500 mm yr -1 of precipitation and so irrigation from groundwater has become an important feature of agricultural intensification. However, groundwater has been used at unsustainable rates, with the result that groundwater levels are dropping by over 1 m per year in some parts (Kendy et al., 2003). Furthermore, precipitation has decreased over the past few decades (Figure 6.16 f). Coupled with intensive irrigation and fertilizer application, this has led to declines in soil water quality through salinization and nitrogen leaching (Kendy et al., 2003). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Global soil status, processes and trends 144
Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution of average soil moisture depth in the top 1 m of the soil. (b) Seasonal variability in soil moisture calculated as the standard deviation of monthly mean soil moisture over the year. (c-d) Global trends (1950-2008) in precipitation and 1 m soil moisture. (e-f) As for (c-d) but for 1990-2008. Results for arid regions and permanent ice sheets are not shown. Source: Sheffield and Wood, 2007. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Global soil status, processes and trends 145
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
Page 135 and 136: Large areas of arable land have bee
Page 137 and 138: most affected zone with 15 million
Page 139 and 140: (Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
Page 141 and 142: MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
Page 143 and 144: 6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
Page 145 and 146: Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
Page 147 and 148: High soil erosion rates will also h
Page 149 and 150: Near-surface soil water content has
Page 151 and 152: 6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
Page 153 and 154: where the drainage in the 1960’s
Page 155 and 156: 6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
Page 157 and 158: Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
Page 159 and 160: Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
Page 161 and 162: 6.3 | Soil contamination status and
Page 163 and 164: and Uruguay. The number of exposed
Page 165 and 166: products increase soil acidity (Bar
Page 167 and 168: availability and inhibit plant grow
Page 169 and 170: In several Asian countries, a blend
Page 171 and 172: underlines the need for global-scal
Page 173 and 174: Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
Page 175 and 176: Figure 6.11 Major components of the
Page 177 and 178: Within the same continent, large va
Page 179 and 180: Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
Page 181 and 182: is among the top options in the por
Page 183 and 184: The quality of the soil’s water i
Page 185: At continental scales, the only pra
Page 189 and 190: Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
Page 191 and 192: Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
Page 193 and 194: Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
Page 195 and 196: Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
Page 197 and 198: Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200: Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
Page 201 and 202: Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204: Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206: Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
Page 207 and 208: United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
Page 209 and 210: Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
Page 211 and 212: 7 | The impact of soil change on ec
Page 213 and 214: Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
Page 215 and 216: 0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
Page 217 and 218: One approach to maintaining soil he
Page 219 and 220: Author Database Used Extent Estimat
Page 221 and 222: salinization. Safe design and opera
Page 223 and 224: The second limitation to prediction
Page 225 and 226: Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
Page 227 and 228: soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
Page 229 and 230: extremes several weeks in advance (
Page 231 and 232: The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
Page 235 and 236: The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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