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12 | Regional assessment of soil changes in Latin America and the Caribbean Regional Coordinator: Maria de Lourdes Mendonça-Santos (ITPS/Brazil) Regional Lead Author: Juan Comerma (Venezuela) Contributing Authors: Julio Alegre (ITPS/Peru), Ildefonso Pla Sentis (Spain), Carlos Cruz Gaistardo (Mexico), Rodrigo Vargas (Mexico), Diego Tassinari (Brazil), Moacir de Souza Dias Junior (Brazil), Sebastián Santayana Vela (Peru), Maria Laura Corso (Argentina), Vanina Pietragalla (Argentina), María Nery Urquiza Rodríguez (Cuba), Candelario Alemán García (Cuba), Segundo Sacramento Urquiaga Caballero (Peru/Brazil), Maria de Lourdes Mendonça-Santos (ITPS/Brazil), Miguel Taboada (ITPS/Argentina), Olegario Muniz (Cuba), Carlos Henriquez (ITPS/Costa Rica) and David Espinosa (ITPS/Mexico). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 364 in Latin America and the Caribbean
12.1 | Introduction This chapter discusses the status of soil resources in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). The LAC region, as defined by FAO, includes the following countries: Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay and Venezuela. The emphasis will be on human-induced ‘anthropogenic’ changes, and not on natural causes, although it is not always easy to separate them. The LAC region extends from Mexico at latitude 32 degrees north to Tierra del Fuego at 55 degrees south. It also includes the Caribbean islands. The presence of 12 out of 14 terrestrial biomes (Olson et al., 2001), the rugged relief in Central America and along the western side of South America, and the large lowlands in central South America that also include interior wetlands, all combine to make LAC the most bio-diverse region in the world. In fact, eight of the 17 mega-diverse countries of the world are located in Latin America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela. In terms of natural resources, Latin America is one of the richest regions of the world. With only 8 percent of the population, it has 23 percent of the world’s potential cropland, 12 percent of the actually cultivated land, 46 percent of the globe’s tropical forest and 31 percent of the planet’s fresh water (Garret, 1997). The region could provide a further 800 million ha of land for agriculture (Laegreid, Bockman and Kaarstad, 1999). However, most of these potential areas are under tropical rainforest and clearing would cause severe environmental changes with dramatic effects on many ecosystem functions. Agricultural conversion of natural ecosystems (grass-shrub-savannas and forest) as a percentage in LAC is of the order of 30 percent, representing slightly over 600 million ha of agro ecosystems, a figure similar to Africa but smaller than Europe and much smaller than Asia. Compared to other regions of the world, these converted agro-ecosystems had a medium to low intensity use of fertilizers and irrigation for much of the 20th century (UNDP, 2000). However, use of fertilizer and irrigation increased dramatically in recent decades as agriculture expanded onto the temperate and subtropical plains (Grau and Aide, 2008; Viglizzo and Jobbagy, 2010). Another important characteristic of this region is that agriculture started in the mountains, mainly because of the presence of serious diseases in the lowlands, notably malaria. Consequently, the sloping lands of the Andes and the Central America Mountains have been cultivated the longest, starting with the Incas and Mayas. Mountainous areas in LAC still have high populations that practice both intensive agriculture like horticulture and more extensive land uses like pasture and coffee growing. Exploitation of the flatter lowlands such as the Pampas and Cerrados, with tropical, subtropical and temperate climates, started only more recently. This is where most of the present intensive farming takes place, including the use of fertilizers and machinery in the production of cereals, legumes and other crops (Viglizzo and Jobbagy, 2010). The main soil threats are related to natural features of physiography and to the type of vegetation cover. Anthropic and cultural features also play an important role, especially inappropriate agricultural practices which are a consequence of inequitable and insecure land tenure, insufficient research and lack of extension services. Water erosion and landslides are prominent threats in the sloping lands of the mountains, especially when the slopes have been burned and overgrazed. Loss of soil carbon mostly occurs after deforestation and change of land use to permanent grassland. In semiarid and arid areas where irrigation is applied, salinity and sodicity are important threats. In areas with more intense land use and the employment of heavy farm machinery, compaction occurs. Also in these areas, the use of amendments, fertilizers and other agrochemicals bring the threats of nutrient imbalance, acidification, contamination and loss of biodiversity. In addition to induced Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 365 in Latin America and the Caribbean
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
Page 355 and 356: The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
Page 357 and 358: Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
Page 359 and 360: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 361 and 362: References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
Page 363 and 364: FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
Page 365 and 366: Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368: Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
Page 369 and 370: Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
Page 371 and 372: Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
Page 373 and 374: 11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376: The internal stratification within
Page 377 and 378: Mediterranean zone This zone by def
Page 379 and 380: (5) Salinization and sodification I
Page 381 and 382: The real extent of diffuse soil con
Page 383 and 384: While there is no harmonised exhaus
Page 385 and 386: Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
Page 387 and 388: This is due to the country’s geo-
Page 389 and 390: Future changes in climate and land
Page 391 and 392: Considering an increase of industri
Page 393 and 394: Comparison of cultivated soils with
Page 395 and 396: Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
Page 397 and 398: The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
Page 399 and 400: Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402: References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404: Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405: van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 409 and 410: Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
Page 411 and 412: Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
Page 413 and 414: humid. The most common soil groups
Page 415 and 416: 12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418: New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420: Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422: Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
Page 423 and 424: The salinity of soils on the cultiv
Page 425 and 426: Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
Page 427 and 428: Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
Page 429 and 430: Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 433 and 434: Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436: Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438: Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440: Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442: 13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444: The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446: Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447 and 448: Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 449 and 450: 13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
Page 451 and 452: 13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454: 13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456: In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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