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5.6 | Climate change The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report reveals that the globally-averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature data show a linear trend of global warming due to increases in anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases of 0.85°C (90 percent uncertainty intervals of 0.65 to 1.06°C). Human influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes in the global water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some climate extremes. Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems (IPCC, 2014a). Climate change will have significant impacts on soil resources and food production in both irrigated and rainfed agriculture across the globe. Changes in water availability due to changes in the quantity and pattern of precipitation will be a critical factor (Turral, Burke and Faurès, 2011). Also, higher temperatures, particularly in arid conditions, entail a higher evaporative demand. Where there is sufficient soil moisture, for example in irrigated areas, this could lead to soil salinization if land or farm water management, or irrigation scheduling or drainage are inadequate. The amount of water stored in the soil is fundamentally important to agriculture and is an influence on the rate of actual evaporation, groundwater recharge, and generation of runoff. Soil moisture contents directly simulated by global climate models give an indication of possible directions of change (IPCC, 2014b). For example, using the HadCM 2 climate model, Gregory, Mitchell and Brady (1997) show that a rise in greenhouse gas concentrations is associated with reduced soil moisture in Northern Hemisphere mid-latitude summers. This results from higher winter and spring evaporation caused by higher temperatures and reduced snow cover, and from lower rainfall inputs during summer. The local effects of climate change on soil moisture, however, will vary not only with the degree of climate change but also with soil characteristics (IPCC, 2014b). The water-holding capacity of soil will affect possible changes in soil moisture deficits; the lower the capacity, the greater the sensitivity to climate change. Climate change also may affect soil characteristics, perhaps through changes in waterlogging or cracking, which in turn may affect soil moisture storage properties. Infiltration capacity and water-holding capacity of many soils are influenced by the frequency and intensity of freezing. Boix-Fayos et al. (1998), for example, show that infiltration and water-holding capacity of soils on limestone are greater with increased frost activity. From this, they infer that increased temperatures could lead to increased surface or shallow runoff. Komescu, Erkan and Oz (1998) assess the implications of climate change for soil moisture availability in southeast Turkey, finding substantial reductions in availability during summer. The probable effects on soil characteristics of a gradual eustatic rise in sea-level will vary from place to place depending on a number of local and external factors, and interactions between them (Brammer and Brinkman, 1990). In principle, a rising sea level would tend to erode and move back existing coastlines. In coastal lowlands which are insufficiently defended by sediment supply or embankments, tidal flooding by saline water will tend to penetrate further inland than at present, extending the area of perennially or seasonally saline soils. Climate change such as uncharacteristic droughts or rainfall and flooding have detrimental influences on soil microorganisms, changing the natural growing conditions for a region (Gschwendtner, 2014). Soil formation is strongly dependent on environmental conditions of both the atmosphere and the lithosphere. Soil temperature is an important factor in this physical, chemical and biological process. Soil temperature is also an important parameter for plant growth. For example, excessive high temperature is harmful to roots and causes lesions of stems, while extreme low temperatures impede intake of nutrients. Extreme low and high soil temperatures also influence the soil microbial population and the rate of organic matter decomposition. Recent studies have shown that soil temperature is one of the main climate factors that influence CO 2 emission. High soil temperatures accelerate soil respiration and thus increase CO 2 emission Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Drivers of global soil change 96
(Brito et al., 2005). This has implications for the landscape and for land use. On convex slopes and hilltops, emission is greater than in foothills, where temperatures are normally lower. Soil surface wetness and canopy cover strongly influence the soil’s energy balance and soil temperature, whereas variation in soil porosity and soil thermal conductivity have little effect on soil temperature (Luo, Loomis and Hsiao, 1992). The various ways to calculate soil temperature and its trends are discussed in Alavipanah (2006) and Alavipanah et al. (2007). References Alavipanah, S.K. 2006. Thermal Remote Sensing and Its Application in the Earth Sciences. Iran, Tehran, Tehran University Press. 522 pp. Alavipanah, S.K., Saradjian, M. Savaghebi, G.R. Komaki, C.B. Moghimi, E. & Reyhan, M.K. 2007. Land surface temperature in the Yardang region of Lut Desert (Iran) based on field measurements and Landsat thermal data. J. Agric. Sci., 9: 287–303. Alexandratos, N. & Bruinsma, J. 2012. World agriculture towards 2030/2050: the 2012 revision. ESA Working paper No. 12-03. Rome, FAO Allen, D.W. 1991. Homesteading and Property Rights; or, How the West Was Really Won. Journal of Law and Economics, 34: 1-23 Alston, L.J., Libecap, G.D. & Schneider, R. 1995. Property Rights and the Preconditions for Markets: The Case of the Amazon Frontier. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 151(1): 89-111 Auffret, P. 2003. Catastrophe Insurance Market in the Caribbean Region: Market Failures and Recommendations for Public Sector Interventions. Policy Research Working Paper No. 2963. Washington, DC, World Bank Barbier, E.B. 2013. Structural Change, Dualism and Economic Development: The Role of the Vulnerable Poor on Marginal Lands. Washington, DC, World Bank Besley, T. 1995. Property rights and investment incentives: Theory and evidence from Ghana. Journal of Political Economy, 103(5): 903-937. Boix-Fayos, C., Calvo-Cases, A., Imeson, A.C., Soriano-Soto, M.D. & Tiemessen, I.R. 1998. Spatial and short-term temporal variations in runoff, soil aggregation and other soil properties along a Mediterranean climatological gradient. Catena, 33: 123–138 Bolton, M. 2003. Mine actions in Bosnia’s special district: a case study. Journal of Mine Action, 7 (2) Brammer, H. & Brinkman, R. 1990. Changes in soil resources in response to a gradually rising sea-level. In H.W. Scharpenseel, M. Schomaker & A. Ayoub, eds. Soils on a Warmer Earth. pp. 145-156. Elsevier Ltd Brito, L.F., La Scala Jr, N., Merques Jr, J. & Pereira, G.T. 2005. Variabilidade temporal da emissão de CO 2 do solo e sua relação com a temperatura do solo em diferentes posições na paisgem em área cultivada com cana-de açúcar. In Simpósio sobre Plantio direto e Meio ambiente. Seqüestro de carbono e qualidade da agua. pp. 210- 212. Anais. Foz do Iguaçu Dayton-Johnson, J. 2006. Natural disaster and vulnerability. Policy brief No. 29. OECD El Baz, F. & Mekharta, R.M. 1994. The Gulf War and the Environment. Amsterdam, Gordon and Breach El Gamily, H. 2007. Utilization of multi-dates LAndsat-TM data to detect and quantify the environmental damages in the southeastern region of Kuwait from 1990 to 1991. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(8): 1773-1788 FAO. 2003. World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030: An FAO Perspective. In J. Bruinsma, ed. UK, Earthscan. FAO. 2010. Gender and Land rights Database. (Also available at http://www.fao.org/gender/landrights/home/en/) FAO. 2011a. World Livestock 2011 – Livestock in food security. Rome, FAO Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Drivers of global soil change 97
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
Page 87 and 88: 3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
Page 89 and 90: References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92: Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
Page 93 and 94: 75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
Page 95 and 96: or increasing forest areas. Between
Page 97 and 98: Degrading land covers approximately
Page 99 and 100: 70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
Page 101 and 102: A meta-analysis of 57 publications
Page 103 and 104: the nutrient inputs remain in the c
Page 105 and 106: Livestock density Livestock product
Page 107 and 108: 4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
Page 109 and 110: Impact of land take Land take, by i
Page 111 and 112: Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
Page 113 and 114: The formation of sulfidic material
Page 115 and 116: are however strongly dependent on t
Page 117 and 118: Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
Page 119 and 120: Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
Page 121 and 122: Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
Page 123 and 124: Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
Page 125 and 126: Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
Page 127 and 128: Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
Page 129 and 130: Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
Page 131 and 132: 5 | Drivers of global soil change D
Page 133 and 134: 5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
Page 135 and 136: Large areas of arable land have bee
Page 137: most affected zone with 15 million
Page 141 and 142: MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
Page 143 and 144: 6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
Page 145 and 146: Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
Page 147 and 148: High soil erosion rates will also h
Page 149 and 150: Near-surface soil water content has
Page 151 and 152: 6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
Page 153 and 154: where the drainage in the 1960’s
Page 155 and 156: 6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
Page 157 and 158: Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
Page 159 and 160: Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
Page 161 and 162: 6.3 | Soil contamination status and
Page 163 and 164: and Uruguay. The number of exposed
Page 165 and 166: products increase soil acidity (Bar
Page 167 and 168: availability and inhibit plant grow
Page 169 and 170: In several Asian countries, a blend
Page 171 and 172: underlines the need for global-scal
Page 173 and 174: Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
Page 175 and 176: Figure 6.11 Major components of the
Page 177 and 178: Within the same continent, large va
Page 179 and 180: Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
Page 181 and 182: is among the top options in the por
Page 183 and 184: The quality of the soil’s water i
Page 185 and 186: At continental scales, the only pra
Page 187 and 188: Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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