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Diaz, R.J. & Rosenberg, R. 2008. Spreading dead zones and consequences for marine ecosystems. Science, 321: 926-929. Dirmeyer, P.A., Cash, B.A., Kinter III, J.L., Stan, C., Jung, T., Marx, L., Towers, P., Wedi, N., Adams, J.M., Altshuler, E.L., Huang, B., Jin, E.K., & Manganello, J. 2012. Evidence for enhanced land-atmosphere feedback in a warming climate. J. Hydrometeorology, 13: 981-995. Dirmeyer, P.A., Gao, X., Zhao, M., Guo, Z., Oki, T. & Hanasaki, N. 2006. GSWP-2: Multimodel analysis and implications for our perception of the land surface. B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 87: 1381—1397. Dlamini, T.C. & Haynes, R.J. 2004. Influence of agricultural land use on the size and composition of earthworm communities in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Applied Soil Ecology, 27: 77-88. Dorigo, W.A., Xaver, A., Vreugdenhil, M., Gruber, A., Hegyova, A., Sanchis-Dufau, A.D., Zamojski, D., Cordes, C., Wagner, W. & Drusch, M. 2013: Global automated quality control of in situ soil moisture data from the International Soil Moisture Network. Vadose Zone Journal, 12. EEA. 2011. Ammonia (NH 3 ) emissions (APE 003). Copenhagen, EEA. (Also available at http://www.eea.europa.eu/ data-and-maps/indicators/eea-32-ammonia-nh 3-emissions-1/assessment-1). EEA. 2012. Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). EEA Technical report No 8/2012. Eggleton, P., Bignell, D.E., Hauser, S., Dibog, L., Norgrove, L. & Madong, B. 2002. Termite diversity across an anthropogenic disturbance gradient in the humid forest zone of West Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 90: 189-202. EM-DAT. 2010. The international disasters database. CRED. (Also available at http://www.emdat.be) Erisman, J.W. & Schaap, M. 2004. The need for ammonia abatement with respect to secondary PM reductions in Europe. Environmental Pollution, 129: 159-163. Erisman, J.W., Bleeker, A., Hensen, A. & Vermeulen, A. 2008. Agricultural air quality in Europe and the future perspective. Atmospheric Environment, 42: 3209-3217. ESPON. 2013. Territorial Dynamics in Europe - Natural Hazards and Climate Change in European Regions. Territorial Observation No. 7. Luxembourg, ESPON. 27 pp. Esteves, T.C.J., Kirkby, M.J., Shakesby, R.A., Ferreira, A.J.D., Soares, J.A.A., Irvine, B.J., Ferreira, C.S.S., Coelho, C.O.A., Bento, C.P.M. & Carreiras, M.M. 2012. Mitigating land degradation caused by wildfire: Application of the PESERA model to fire-affected sites in central Portugal. Geoderma, 191: 40–50. European Soil Bureau Network. 2005. Soil Atlas of Europe. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 128 pp. Ewen, J., O’Donnell, G., Bulygina, N., Ballard, C. & O’Connell, E. 2013. Towards understanding links between rural land management and the catchment flood hydrograph. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 139: 350–357. Falkowski, P.G., Barber, R.T. & Smetacek, V. 1998. Biogeochemical controls and feedbacks on ocean primary production. Science, 281: 200-206. FAO. 1996. Rome declaration on world food security. World Food Summit. Rome, FAO. FAO. 2011. Forests and Landslides. Bangkok, FAO, RAP. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/ba0126e/ ba0126e 00.htm). FAO. 2014. IUSS Working Group WRB. 2014. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014. International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. Rome, FAO. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 208
Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D., Baron, J.S., Bormann, B.T., Johnson, D.W., Lemly, A.D., McNulty, S.G., Ryan, D.F. & Stottlemyer, R. 1998. Nitrogen excess in North American ecosystems: predisposing factors, ecosystem responses, and management strategies. Ecological Applications, 8(3): 706-733. Findell, K.L., Gentine, P., Lintner, B.R. & Kerr, C. 2011. Probability of afternoon precipitation in eastern United States and Mexico enhanced by high evaporation. Nature Geoscience, 4: 434-439. Firbank, L, Bradbury, R.B., McCracken, D.I. & Stoate, C. 2013. Delivering multiple ecosystem services from Enclosed Farmland in the UK. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 166: 65‒75. Fischer, E.M., Seneviratne, S.I., Vidale, P.L., Lüthi, D. & Schär, C. 2007. Soil moisture - atmosphere interactions during the 2003 European summer heatwave. J. Climate, 20: 5081-5099. Flynn H.C. & Smith P. 2010. Greenhouse Gas Budgets of Crop Production and the Mitigation Potential of Nutrient Management. UK, York, International Fertiliser Society. Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R., Chapin, F.S., Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., Gibbs, H.K., Helkowski, J.H., Holloway, T., Howard, E.A., Kucharik, C.J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J.A., Prentice, I.C., Ramankutty, N. & Snyder, P.K. 2005. Global consequences of land use. Science, 309: 570-574. Foley, J.A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K.A., Cassidy, E.S., Gerber, J.S., Johnston, M., Mueller, N.D., O’Connell, C., Ray, D.K., West, P.C., Balzer, C., Bennett, E.M., Carpenter, S. R., Hill, J., Monfreda, C., Polasky, S., Rockström, J., Sheehan, J., Siebert, S., Tilman, D. & Zaks, D.P.M. 2011. Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature, 478: 337-342. Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fahey, D.W., Haywood, J., Lean, J., Lowe, D.C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M. & Van Dorland, R. 2007. Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In: S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller, eds. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. pp. 133–134. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. Fowler, D., Coyle, M., Skiba, U., Sutton, M.A., Cape, J.N., Reis, S., Sheppard, L.J., Jenkins, A., Grizzetti, B., Galloway, J.N., Vitousek, P., Leach, A., Bouwman, A.F., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Dentener, F., Stevenson, D., Amann, M. & Voss, M. 2013. The global nitrogen cycle in the twenty-first century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 368(1621): 20130164. Friedlingstein, P., Cox, P., Betts, R., Bopp, L., Von Bloh, W., Brovkin, V., Cadule, P., Doney, S., Eby, M., Fung, I., Bala, G., John, J., Jones, C., Joos, F., Kato, T., Kawamiya, M., Knorr, W., Lindsay, K., Matthews, H.D., Raddatz, T., Rayner, P., Reick, C., Roeckner, E., Schnitzler, K.G., Schnur, R., Strassmann, K., Weaver, A.J., Yoshikawa, C. & Zeng, N. 2006. Climate–Carbon Cycle Feedback Analysis: Results from the C 4MIP Model Intercomparison. J. Climate, 19: 3337—3353. Fundel, F., Jörg-Hess, S. & Zappa, M. 2013. Monthly hydrometeorological ensemble prediction of streamflow droughts and corresponding drought indices. Hydrological and Earth System Sciences, 17(1-1): 395–407. Galloway, J.N., Aber, J.D., Erisman, J.W., Seitzinger, S.P., Howarth, R.W., Cowling, E.B. & Cosby, B.J. 2003: The nitrogen cascade. Bioscience, 53: 341-356. Gardi, C., Jeffery, S. & Saltelli, A. 2013. An estimate of potential threats levels to soil biodiversity in EU. Global Change Biology, 19: 1538-1548. Gasso, V., Sörensen, C.A.G., Oudshoorn, F.W. & Green, O. 2013. Review, Controlled traffic farming: A review of the environmental impacts. Europ. J. Agronomy, 48: 66–73. Ghassemi, F., Jakeman, A.J. & Nix, H.A. 1995. Salinisation of land and water resources: human causes, extent, management and case studies. Australia, Canberra, The Australian National University & UK, Oxfordshire, Wallingford, CAB International. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 209
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200: Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
Page 201 and 202: Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204: Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206: Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
Page 207 and 208: United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
Page 209 and 210: Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
Page 211 and 212: 7 | The impact of soil change on ec
Page 213 and 214: Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
Page 215 and 216: 0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
Page 217 and 218: One approach to maintaining soil he
Page 219 and 220: Author Database Used Extent Estimat
Page 221 and 222: salinization. Safe design and opera
Page 223 and 224: The second limitation to prediction
Page 225 and 226: Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
Page 227 and 228: soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
Page 229 and 230: extremes several weeks in advance (
Page 231 and 232: The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
Page 235 and 236: The concept of the critical load of
Page 237 and 238: as it indicates that management and
Page 239 and 240: 10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
Page 241 and 242: phenomena such as the onset of mass
Page 243 and 244: Although poorly explored, diversity
Page 245 and 246: affect the health of humans and ani
Page 247 and 248: Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249: Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 253 and 254: Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256: Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258: Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262: Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
Page 263 and 264: UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 265 and 266: 8 | Governance and policy responses
Page 267 and 268: contemporary challenge for policy m
Page 269 and 270: Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
Page 271 and 272: Ensure integrated management of pes
Page 273 and 274: 8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
Page 275 and 276: while in areas with fertile soils t
Page 277 and 278: In New Zealand, there are few regul
Page 279 and 280: The SEEA Central Framework identifi
Page 281 and 282: EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283 and 284: World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
Page 285 and 286: 9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
Page 287 and 288: Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
Page 289 and 290: The soils are strongly weathered an
Page 291 and 292: It exposes the soil to the erosive
Page 293 and 294: In many African cultures, harvestin
Page 295 and 296: Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
Page 297 and 298: Poverty: General poverty of the far
Page 299 and 300: Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600:
STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602:
ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
Page 603 and 604:
5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
Page 605 and 606:
KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
Page 607 and 608:
PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610:
UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612:
6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
Page 613 and 614:
CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
Page 615 and 616:
GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618:
7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620:
ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
Page 621 and 622:
LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624:
ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
Page 625 and 626:
LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
Page 627 and 628:
8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630:
REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
Page 631 and 632:
ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
Page 633 and 634:
FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
Page 635 and 636:
9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
Page 637 and 638:
Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
Page 639 and 640:
Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
Page 641 and 642:
Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
Page 643 and 644:
Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
Page 645 and 646:
Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
Page 647 and 648:
Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
Page 649:
Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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