World’s Soil Resources

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The change in SOC depends on soil type. For example, continuous cultivation of Cambisols in northern Iran tends to decrease C by 29 to 74 percent as compared to grass or forest use respectively, whereas the equivalent decline for Vertisols is only 11 to 59 percent. Another study on soil quality indicators potentially sensitive to land degradation due to land use change was carried out in a rangeland pasture in Iran’s Isfahan Province that had been protected for more than two decades (Nael, Khademi and Hajabbasi, 2004). The study showed that C content in the protected range was close to double (1.7 times) that of areas of uncontrolled grazing. This study clearly indicated that in the dryland of this region, decisions that control grazing are favourable for soil C storage. In another study, four decades after conversion from oak forest (Quercus brantii Lindl.) to vegetable cultivation (tomato and snap bean), soils had lost almost 53 percent of C (Fallahzadeh and Hajabbasi, 2012b). A further study found that twentyyears after oak forest (Quercus brantii) in the Lordegan region of Iran’s Zagros mountains was converted into either wheat or barley cultivation or agroforestry uses, soil C in the 0-30 cm depth decreased by 52 and 61 percent, respectively (Hajabbasi et al., 1997). 13.4.4 | Soil contamination Land degradation due to accumulation of contaminants is concentrated in either oil producing countries or those that are heavily populated. In agricultural soils, contamination is generally restricted to irrigated farming systems. In some instances, the over-use of chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides) has sharply increased the amount of chemical nutrients in the drainage water, causing water eutrophication (NAP, 2002). Since the construction of the Aswan High Dam of Egypt in 1970, fertilizers and pesticides have been heavily used in order to substitute for the loss of fertile sediments. FAO (2012) reported that during the period from 1950 to 1990, chemical fertilizer use increased more than fourfold, from 2 143 tonnes in the 1950s up to 11 700 tonnes in 1990. These chemical fertilizers and the residues of applied pesticides have caused the contamination of soil and water resources in the Nile Delta. In Iran, contamination of soil is increasing from a variety of sources: petroleum hydrocarbons spilled during transportation, leakage from tanks, accidental spillage, pipeline ruptures, or dumping of oil landfill. This contamination threatens soil functions. It may decrease seed germination of grasses by more than 50 percent (Besalatpour et al., 2008) – although this may not necessarily affect their subsequent performance. It also reduces dry matter accumulation in sunflower and safflower by 50 and 73 percent, respectively (Besalatpour et al., 2008). The two Gulf wars in 1990 and 1991 contributed to contamination of this kind through the detonation of oil wells (Al-Senafy et al., 1997; Misak, Khalaf and Omar, 2009). Case study: Kuwait experience in remediation of oil contamination After the Iraq war, over 300 oil lakes covering an area of 46 km 2 were formed within Kuwait. The lakes were up to two meters deep, and the oil penetrated the soil to varying depths. To restore areas degraded by oil, the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Japan Petroleum Energy Centre began in 1994 to devise biological technologies for remediation and rehabilitation (Figure 13.3). In a small scale pilot (1 920 m 2 ) and in field demonstrations, heavily oil contaminated soil was remediated over a 12-18 month period, using bioremediation techniques involving enhanced land farming techniques, windrow composting piles, and static bioventing piles. The programme resulted in 80-90.5 percent reduction in the total petroleum hydrocarbons and total alkanes (Al Awadhi, 1996; Balba et al., 1998). This technology is considered to be economical, energy efficient, and environmentally friendly with minimal residue disposal problems. However, the volatilization of airborne volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere during the process of degradation may lead to serious human health risk (Hejazi, Hussain and Khan, 2003). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 420 in the Near East and North Africa
Figure 13.3 Layout of the project site source (a) and conceptual design and layout of bioremediation system (b). Source: Balba et al., 1998. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 421 in the Near East and North Africa
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
Page 411 and 412: Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
Page 413 and 414: humid. The most common soil groups
Page 415 and 416: 12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418: New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420: Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422: Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
Page 423 and 424: The salinity of soils on the cultiv
Page 425 and 426: Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
Page 427 and 428: Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
Page 429 and 430: Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 433 and 434: Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436: Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438: Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440: Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442: 13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444: The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446: Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447 and 448: Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 449 and 450: 13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
Page 451 and 452: 13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454: 13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456: In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458: 2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460: Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461: Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 465 and 466: 13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
Page 467 and 468: Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470: 2 - Land degradation assessment map
Page 471 and 472: Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 475 and 476: References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478: Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480: FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482: Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484: Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486: 14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488: The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490: 14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492: Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
Page 493 and 494: Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496: The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498: 14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
Page 499 and 500: The relationship between soil prope
Page 501 and 502: 14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
Page 503 and 504: Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
Page 505 and 506: Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
Page 507 and 508: Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
Page 509 and 510: 14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
Page 511 and 512: Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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