World’s Soil Resources

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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soil organic C | 15 2.1.3 | Soil C pools | 16 2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C storage | 17 2.1.5 | Carbon cycle: knowledge gaps and research needs | 18 2.1.6 | Concluding remarks | 18 2.2 | Soils and the nutrient cycle | 18 2.2.1 | The nutrient cycle: knowledge gaps and research needs | 21 2.3 | Soils and the water cycle | 21 2.4 | Soil as a habitat for organisms and a genetic pool | 24 3 | Global Soil Resources | 31 3.1 | The evolution of soil definitions | 31 3.2 | Soil definitions in different soil classification systems | 32 3.3 | Soils, landscapes and pedodiversity | 32 3.4 | Properties of the soil | 33 3.5 | Global soil maps | 33 3.6 | Soil qualities essential for the provision of ecosystem services | 34 3.6.1 | Inherent soil fertility | 35 3.6.2 | Soil moisture qualities and limitations | 37 3.6.3 | Soils properties and climate change | 37 3.6.4 | Soil erodibility and water erosion | 38 3.6.5 | Soil workability | 39 3.6.6 | Soils and ecosystem goods and services | 40 3.7 | Global assessments of soil change - a history | 43 3.7.1 | GLASOD: expert opinion | 43 3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem approach | 45 3.7.3 | Status of the World’s Soil Resources | 46 4 | Soils and Humans | 50 Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report VI
4.1 | Current land cover and land use | 50 4.2 | Historical land cover and land use change | 53 4.3 | Interactions between soils, land use and management | 54 4.3.1 | Land use change and soil degradation | 54 4.3.2 | Land use intensity change | 60 4.3.3 | Land use change resulting in irreversible soil change | 65 4.4 | Atmospheric deposition | 72 4.4.1 | Atmospheric deposition | 72 4.4.2 | Main atmospheric pollutants: Synopsis of current state of knowledge | 73 4.4.3 | Knowledge gaps and research needs | 76 Global Soil Change Drivers, Status and Trends | 88 5 | Drivers of global soil change | 89 5.1 | Population growth and urbanization | 89 5.1.1 | Population dynamics | 89 5.1.2 | Urbanization | 91 5.2 | Education, cultural values and social equity | 91 5.3 | Marketing land | 92 5.4 | Economic growth | 94 5.5 | War and civil strife | 94 5.6 | Climate change | 96 6 | Global soil status, processes and trends | 100 6.1.1 | Processes | 100 6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion | 101 6.1.3 | Soil erosion versus soil formation | 103 6.1.4 | Soil erodibility | 104 6.1.5 | Soil erosion and agriculture | 104 6.1.6 | Soil erosion and the environment | 105 Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report VII
Page 1 and 2: Status of the World’s Main Report
Page 3 and 4: Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
Page 5: Table of contents Disclaimer and co
Page 9 and 10: 6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
Page 11 and 12: 7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
Page 13 and 14: 9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
Page 15 and 16: 12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
Page 17 and 18: 14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
Page 19 and 20: Foreword This document presents the
Page 21 and 22: Preface | Scope of The State of the
Page 23 and 24: Acknowledgments The Status of the W
Page 25 and 26: CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
Page 27 and 28: FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
Page 29 and 30: LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
Page 31 and 32: SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
Page 33 and 34: List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
Page 35 and 36: List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
Page 37 and 38: Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
Page 39 and 40: Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
Page 41 and 42: colored diaper associated with micr
Page 43 and 44: Preface The main objectives of The
Page 45 and 46: Global soil resources Coordinating
Page 47 and 48: The balance between the supporting
Page 49 and 50: 1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
Page 51 and 52: Soil functions and ecosystem servic
Page 53 and 54: Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
Page 55 and 56: 2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
Page 57 and 58:
2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
Page 59 and 60:
2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
Page 91 and 92:
Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
Page 195 and 196:
Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
Page 197 and 198:
Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
Page 199 and 200:
Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
Page 201 and 202:
Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
Page 203 and 204:
Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
Page 205 and 206:
Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
Page 207 and 208:
United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250:
Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252:
Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254:
Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256:
Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258:
Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260:
Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262:
Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 265 and 266:
8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283 and 284:
World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
Page 323 and 324:
Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
Page 325 and 326:
Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
Page 327 and 328:
Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
Page 363 and 364:
FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
Page 365 and 366:
Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368:
Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
Page 369 and 370:
Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
Page 371 and 372:
Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
Page 373 and 374:
11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376:
The internal stratification within
Page 377 and 378:
Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
Page 381 and 382:
The real extent of diffuse soil con
Page 383 and 384:
While there is no harmonised exhaus
Page 385 and 386:
Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
Page 387 and 388:
This is due to the country’s geo-
Page 389 and 390:
Future changes in climate and land
Page 391 and 392:
Considering an increase of industri
Page 393 and 394:
Comparison of cultivated soils with
Page 395 and 396:
Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402:
References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404:
Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406:
van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408:
12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410:
Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418:
New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420:
Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422:
Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432:
Page 433 and 434:
Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436:
Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438:
Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440:
Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442:
13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444:
The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446:
Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447 and 448:
Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 449 and 450:
13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
Page 451 and 452:
13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454:
13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456:
In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458:
2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460:
Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461 and 462:
Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 463 and 464:
Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470:
2 - Land degradation assessment map
Page 471 and 472:
Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474:
Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492:
Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496:
The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498:
14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
Page 501 and 502:
14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
Page 503 and 504:
Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
Page 507 and 508:
Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
Page 509 and 510:
14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
Page 521 and 522:
of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
Page 527 and 528:
15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
Page 529 and 530:
egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534:
Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536:
The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540:
Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542:
Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544:
Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
Page 545 and 546:
Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548:
The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550:
The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558:
Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
Page 563 and 564:
16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
Page 565 and 566:
16.3 | Response All activities in A
Page 567 and 568:
IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
Page 569 and 570:
Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
Page 571 and 572:
a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
Page 575 and 576:
a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
Page 579 and 580:
Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
Page 581 and 582:
a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
Page 583 and 584:
Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
Page 585 and 586:
a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
Page 587 and 588:
Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
Page 591 and 592:
NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
Page 593 and 594:
PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596:
PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598:
GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600:
STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602:
ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
Page 603 and 604:
5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
Page 605 and 606:
KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
Page 607 and 608:
PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610:
UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612:
6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
Page 613 and 614:
CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
Page 615 and 616:
GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618:
7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620:
ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
Page 621 and 622:
LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624:
ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
Page 625 and 626:
LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
Page 627 and 628:
8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630:
REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
Page 631 and 632:
ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
Page 633 and 634:
FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
Page 635 and 636:
9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
Page 637 and 638:
Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
Page 639 and 640:
Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
Page 641 and 642:
Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
Page 643 and 644:
Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
Page 645 and 646:
Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
Page 647 and 648:
Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
Page 649:
Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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