World’s Soil Resources

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VERTISOLS Vertisols (Figure A 6) are expansive clayey soils that shrink and swell extensively with changes in moisture content. Cracking, gilgai microrelief, and high clay content are common attributes of Vertisols, but these properties are not exclusive to them. Slickensides are the common morphogenetic link to Vertisols and Vertic intergrades (Ahmad, 1983; Coulombe et al., 1996a and 2000; Soil Survey Staff, 1999). The soil mechanics model of shear failure, slickenside formation, and oblique thrusting appear to better fit observed morphological properties, systematic soil property depth functions, and leaching vector transfers than the traditional inversion pedoturbation model (Ahmad, 1983; Coulombe et al., 1996a; Wilding and Tessier, 1988). Shrink-swell in Vertisols is due mainly to inter- and intra-particle pore volume changes that occur under field conditions at high matric potentials (-1/3 to -10 bars). This is in contrast to the commonly held interlayer clay dehydration/ rehydration mechanism invoked for shrink/swell dynamics (Wilding and Tessier, 1988). While smectite is a clay mineral component commonly found in Vertisols, many other clays including kaolinite, halloysite, mica and mixed layer assemblages of vermiculite, smectite and chlorite may occur as dominant or co-dominant associates (Coulombe et al., 1996b). Mineralogy controls shrink-swell phenomena by the presence of finegrained particles which have high external surface areas, high flexibility and a packing geometry that favours micropores a few micrometres in diameter or less (Wilding and Tessier, 1988; Coulombe et al., 1996b). Vertisols commonly occur in regions of grasslands and savannas, but may also be found under mixed pine and deciduous forests. Parent materials may originate from sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic origins but must provide, either from inheritance or weathering, a high content of clay with high surface area. Soil moisture conditions vary widely from aridic to aquic with the caveat that soil moisture stress, desiccation and cracking must occur at some time in most years. Topography controls gilgai patterns with normal gilgai commonly occurring on slopes < 4 percent, while linear gilgai occur on steeper landforms. Most Vertisols occur on Pleistocene-age or younger geomorphic surfaces that are several thousand to hundreds of thousands of years old (Coulombe et al., 1996a and 2000). Vertisols occur in over 100 countries and represent about 316 million km 2 or 2.4 percent of the global icefree land area (Dudal and Eswaran, 1988; Ahmad, 1983; Coulombe et al., 1996a; Wilding, 2000; Coulombe et al., 2000). Over 75 percent of Vertisols are found in India, Australia, Sudan, United States, Chad and China. Fortyseven percent are in tropical regions, 52 percent in temperate zones, and 1 percent in cold boreal climates (Wilding, 2000; Coulombe et al., 2000). While Vertisols are very productive land resources in many parts of the world, especially in the developed world, they are among the most difficult resources to manage (Coulombe et al., 1996a; McGarity et al., 1984; Ahmad and Mermut, 1996). They require well above average managerial skills for success because of their high energy requirements, limited range of soil-water workability, high physical instability, susceptibility to seasonal flooding, fertility constraints, and susceptibility to wind and water erosion. They are best managed with shallow and infrequent tillage. Irrigation scheduling should be frequent with low application rates. Despite their resilience, Vertisols are subject to structural degradation, loss of macroporosity, loss of biological diversity and formation of tillage pans when used under continuous, long-term mechanical cultivation practices. Rejuvenation of native structural conditions can only be partially achieved after decades of fallow (Coulombe et al., 1996a; McGarity et al., 1984; Puentes and Wilding, 1990). Construction activities are constrained by the propensity of Vertisols for soil failure and high shrink/swell activity (Coulombe et al., 2000; McGarity et al., 1984; Ahmad and Mermut, 1996). High bioremediation and physical/chemical sorption capacities promote favourable habitats for land treatment of waste products because Vertisols when wet are slowly permeable, biochemically reduced, and have long mean residence times for intestinal fluids. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Annex | Soil groups, characteristics, 538 distribution and ecosystem services
a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L. Wilding c Photo by L. Wilding d Photo by L. Wilding Figure A 6 Vertisol gilgai patterns and associated soils: (a) linear gilgai pattern located on a moderately sloping hillside in western South Dakota. Distance between repeating gilgai cycle is about 4 m. (b) Normal gilgai pattern occurring on a nearly level clayey terrace near College Station, TX. After a rainfall event microlows have been partially filled with runoff water from microhighs - repeating gilgai cycle about 4 m in linear length. (c) Trench exposure of soils excavated across normal gilgai pattern - repeating gilgai cycle about 4 m in linear length. Dark-colored deep soil in microlow (leached A and Bss horizons) with light-colored shallow calcareous soils associated with diaper in microhigh (Bssk and Ck horizons). The diaper has been thrust along oblique slickenside planes towards soils surface. Vertical depth of soil trench in about 2 m. (d) Close up of dark-colored soil associated with microlow and light colored diaper associated with microhigh of the trench in (c). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Annex | Soil groups, characteristics, 539 distribution and ecosystem services
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
Page 529 and 530: egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532: New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534: Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536: The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538: Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540: Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542: Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544: Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
Page 545 and 546: Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548: The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550: The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552: Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554: Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556: Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558: Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560: Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562: Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
Page 563 and 564: 16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
Page 565 and 566: 16.3 | Response All activities in A
Page 567 and 568: IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
Page 569 and 570: Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
Page 571 and 572: a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
Page 573 and 574: Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
Page 575 and 576: a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
Page 577 and 578: a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
Page 579: Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
Page 583 and 584: Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
Page 585 and 586: a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
Page 587 and 588: Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
Page 589 and 590: FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
Page 591 and 592: NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
Page 593 and 594: PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
Page 595 and 596: PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
Page 597 and 598: GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
Page 599 and 600: STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
Page 601 and 602: ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
Page 603 and 604: 5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
Page 605 and 606: KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
Page 607 and 608: PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
Page 609 and 610: UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
Page 611 and 612: 6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
Page 613 and 614: CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
Page 615 and 616: GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
Page 617 and 618: 7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
Page 619 and 620: ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
Page 621 and 622: LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
Page 623 and 624: ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
Page 625 and 626: LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
Page 627 and 628: 8 | Soils with little or no profile
Page 629 and 630: REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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