World’s Soil Resources

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13.3 | Major threats to soils in the region 13.3.1 | Erosion Water erosion Water erosion is predominant in the part of the region which has sloping lands and where rainfed agriculture is practiced, although it may also occur in gently sloping areas. The degree of water erosion depends on the intensity and duration of the rainstorms, often enhanced by the terrain attributes and land use practices, particularly where these have reduced land cover. Water erosion results in the removal of fertile soil and in the reduction of irrigation efficiency and storage capacity. Considerable volumes of soil may be lost. Based on the GLASOD survey quoted by Abahussain et al. (2002), the total area affected by water erosion in NENA has been estimated at about 41 million ha. However, the extent varies significantly by country (Table 13.1.). Country Area Country Area Country Area Algeria 3 900 Lebanon 65 Sudan 17 300 Bahrain 0 Libya 1 300 South Sudan n.d. Egypt Negligible Morocco 3 600 Syria 1 200 Iran 1 70 000 Oman 2 800 Tunisia 3 800 Iraq 1 150 Palestine n.d. United Arab Emirates 0 Jordan 330 Qatar 0 Yemen 5 600 Kuwait 0 Saudi Arabia 200 Table 13.1 Land degradation caused by water erosion in the NENA region (1000 ha) Source: Abahussain et al., 2002. 1 Azimzadeh et al., 2008 Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 404 in the Near East and North Africa
Wind erosion A review conducted by Abahussain et al. (2002) indicated that more than half of the total area in the region received annual rainfall of less than 150 mm. Consequently, large areas are without plant cover, or the cover is very sparse. This situation is aggravated further by high land-use pressure, both from human and animals, which ultimately causes severe topsoil disturbance. The resulting wind erosion is the most common environmental problem in the region and accounts for approximately 60 percent (135 million ha) of soil degradation. Countries differ in the extent they are affected, with Saudi Arabia the most affected (Table 13.2). Wind erosion has resulted in detrimental effects on land quality by removing the fertile top soils. In addition, the accumulation of eroded materials in irrigation canals, agricultural fields (sand encroachment) and water harvesting points affects the cropped areas in the region severely. Country Area Country Area Country Area Algeria 12 000 Lebanon Sudan 71 000 Bahrain n.d. Libya 24 000 South Sudan n.d. Egypt 1 400 Morocco 600 Syria 3 000 Iran 1 20 000 Oman 4 000 Tunisia 4 000 Iraq 3 000 Palestine n.d. United Arab Emirates 1 100 Jordan 3 000 Qatar 200 Yemen 6 000 Kuwait 300 Saudi Arabia 50 000 Table 13.2 Soil degradation caused by wind erosion in the NENA region (1000 ha). Source: Abahussain et al., (2002 ). 1 Azimzadeh et al., 2008 An example of the problems is provided by the largest irrigated scheme in the world – the Gezira scheme in Sudan – which has been badly affected by sand encroaching from surrounding areas. One study found that over the last decade, wind erosion has decreased the soil level outside the scheme by 10 cm, whereas soil depth increased inside the scheme by 30 cm - any increase in level beyond 20 cm prevents irrigation water flow. Inside the scheme, the topsoil texture has changed from clayey to more sandy. Dune displacement in the scheme was about 3-5 meters month -1 during the season of active sand movement (Al-Amin, 1999). This situation has forced famers to take considerable land out of production because of problems irrigating, with sand filling the irrigation canals and altering slopes (Mohammed, Stigter and Adam, 1995). The continental sands of Kordofan and Darfur (Sudan) which support the world’s major source of gum Arabic (Acacia senegal L.) encounter severe wind erosion due to overgrazing and mismanagement, which endangers the dominance of the species in the area. Omar et al. (1998) also gave the example of sand encroachment into the cultivated areas of south Kuwait that has forced famers to take 35 percent of their total cultivable land out of production. Water and wind erosion are also prevalent in the western area of Libya (Jifara Plain and Jebal Naffusah) where agricultural development is dominant, and in El-Witia area in the southwestern Jifara Plain as observed by the Remote Sensing Center in Tripoli (Ben-Mahmoud, Mansur and AL-Gomati, 2000). For example, the area of fertile cultivated soils in El-Witia classified as class 1 has decreased (1986 to 1996) from 66 000 to 44 900 ha (a 31 percent reduction), whereas the area of soils low in fertility has increased from 97 000 to 134 000 ha (a 38 percent increase). In addition, the area covered with sand dunes has increased from 32 000 to 104 000 ha (a 52 percent increase). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 405 in the Near East and North Africa
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
Page 395 and 396: Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
Page 397 and 398: The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
Page 399 and 400: Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402: References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404: Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406: van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408: 12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410: Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
Page 411 and 412: Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
Page 413 and 414: humid. The most common soil groups
Page 415 and 416: 12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418: New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420: Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422: Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
Page 423 and 424: The salinity of soils on the cultiv
Page 425 and 426: Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
Page 427 and 428: Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
Page 429 and 430: Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 433 and 434: Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436: Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438: Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440: Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442: 13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444: The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445: Poverty within this system is exten
Page 449 and 450: 13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
Page 451 and 452: 13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454: 13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456: In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458: 2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460: Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461 and 462: Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 463 and 464: Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
Page 465 and 466: 13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
Page 467 and 468: Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470: 2 - Land degradation assessment map
Page 471 and 472: Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 475 and 476: References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478: Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480: FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482: Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484: Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486: 14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488: The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490: 14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492: Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
Page 493 and 494: Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496: The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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